Palm oil
In the late 1800s, archaeologists discovered a substance that they concluded was originally palm oil in a tomb at Abydos dating back to 3,000 BCE.
[11] By around 1870, palm oil constituted the primary export of some West African countries, which often led to oppressive labor practices, as highlighted in the account of Abina Mansah's life.
The oil palm produces bunches containing many fruits with the fleshy mesocarp enclosing a kernel that is covered by a very hard shell.
[19] Palm oil is a common cooking ingredient in the tropical belt of Africa, Southeast Asia and parts of Brazil.
Its use in the commercial food industry in other parts of the world is widespread because of its lower cost[20] and the high oxidative stability (saturation) of the refined product when used for frying.
Density treatment can also act as a basic form of degumming, provided that the fruit is steamed before milling to hydrolyze the gum, at a cost of also losing some triglycerides to hydrolysis.
[29][30] Palm oil is pervasively used in personal care and cleaning products, and it provides the foaming agent in nearly every soap, shampoo, or detergent.
Around 70% of personal care products including soap, shampoo, makeup, and lotion, contain ingredients derived from palm oil.
The Indonesian government has estimated it would need to establish approximately 15 million hectares of oil palm plantations to meet these future demands.
[47] During the 2022 food crises instigated by the Russian invasion of Ukraine and crop failures in other parts of the world due to extreme weather caused by climate change, the Indonesian government banned exports of palm oil.
[46] In 1992, in response to concerns about deforestation, the Government of Malaysia pledged to limit the expansion of palm oil plantations by retaining a minimum of half the nation's land as forest cover.
In spite of the economic benefits, Non-governmental organisations (NGOs), such as Nature Tropicale, claim biofuels will compete with domestic food production in some existing prime agricultural sites.
They are also concerned genetically modified plants will be introduced into the region, jeopardizing the current premium paid for their non-GM crops.
[62][63] According to a study from the Environmental, Science and Policy, Colombia has the potential to produce sustainable palm oil without causing deforestation.
[65] Ecuador aims to help palm oil producers switch to sustainable methods and achieve RSPO certification under initiatives to develop greener industries.
Since 1993 a new hybrid variety of cold-tolerant, high-yielding oil palm has been promoted by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations in western Kenya.
[67] Beginning in the 1970s, smaller-scale palm oil plantations were developed in Tanintharyi Region, and Mon, Kayin, and Rakhine States.
One species in particular, the Sumatran orangutan, has been listed as critically endangered because of habitat loss due to palm oil cultivation.
[70][71] In addition to environmental concerns, palm oil development in regions that produce it has also led to significant social conflict.
Palm oil production provides employment opportunities, and has been shown to improve infrastructure, and social services and reduce poverty.
Examples include the UN Food and Agriculture Organisation's hybrid oil palm project in Western Kenya, which improves incomes and diets of local populations, and Malaysia's Federal Land Development Authority and Federal Land Consolidation and Rehabilitation Authority, which both support rural development.
[83] One report indicated numerous allegations of human rights violations in the production of palm oil in Indonesia and Malaysia, including exposure to hazardous pesticides, child labor, rape and sexual abuse, and unsafe carrying loads.
Pesticides used by palm oil plantations include paraquat, which has been banned in Europe over links to Parkinson's disease, and glyphosate, which has been involved in a US class-action lawsuit regarding cancer[84] (the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) classified glyphosate as causing serious eye damage but did not find evidence implicating it as a carcinogen).
[85] Reports of indigenous peoples and communities in Indonesia, indicate losing farmland and traditionally significant land due to palm oil industry expansion.
[112] In 2020 a study by Chain Reaction Research concluded that NDPE (No Deforestation, No Peat, No Exploitation) policies cover 83% of palm oil refineries.
NDPE policies are according to the Chain Reaction Research the most effective private mechanism to cut the direct link with deforestation, due to the economic leverage refineries have over palm oil growers.
The seat of the association is in Zürich, Switzerland, while the secretariat is currently based in Kuala Lumpur, with a satellite office in Jakarta.
[122] The RSPO was established following concerns raised by non-governmental organizations about environmental impacts resulting from palm oil production.
[137] The EFSA's tolerable daily intake (TDI) of 3-MCPD and its fatty acid esters was set to 0.8 micrograms per kilogram of body weight per day (μg/kg bw/day) in 2016 and increased to 2 μg/kg bw/day in 2017, based on evidence linking this substance to organ damage in animal tests and on possible adverse effects on the kidney and on male fertility.
[133][134][145] Other reviews, the World Health Organization, and the US National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute have encouraged consumers to limit the consumption of palm oil, palmitic acid and foods high in saturated fat.
