[2][5][6] Herman Willem Daendels, Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies during the Napoleonic interregnum from 1808 to 1811, and his British successor from 1811 until 1816, Sir Stamford Raffles, oversaw a large-scale sale of government land as particuliere landen.
[4][6] Like the princely states, the particuliere landerijen were not directly controlled by the colonial government, and so were not subjected to the notorious Cultivation System, introduced by Governor-General Johannes van den Bosch in 1830.
[5] In keeping with the ‘Ethical’ policy of the early twentieth century, the Dutch colonial government devised an ambitious plan to repurchase the particuliere landen from their owners.
[3] Although land reforms continued, the particuliere landerijen – though much-reduced in numbers and in legal powers – survived the Japanese occupation during WW II (1942-1945) and the Indonesian revolution (1945-1949).
[13][14] In this context, 'Kongsi' meant 'Lord' or 'his Lordship', and was a title used by the Chinese Landheeren, who were invariably scions of the Cabang Atas gentry.
[16] The Landheer was also responsible for the provision of education, health and other social services and public infrastructures for the inhabitants of the domain.
[2][3][5] As part of his landsheerlijke rechten, the Landheer was entitled to certain dues from his subjects, including tjoekee or contingent, which consisted of 20% of the harvest from dependent holdings worked on by his tenant farmers.