Svayamvara

[5] In support of this, linguist Stephanie W. Jamison notes several indirect references to Svayaṃvara in the Ṛg Veda, the oldest Hindu scripture, and suggests that the custom may have roots in the Indo-European tradition due to its similarity to the tale of Penelope and her many suitors in the Greek poem Odyssey.

[8] Brockington adds a subsequent phase that developed after the contest style, placing greater emphasis on the bride's agency and romantic ideals, as well as Dharmashastra's ordinance to marry.

[10] The Sanskrit Dharmashastras, the law books of Hinduism, such as the Manusmṛti (c. 1st century CE), permit a girl to choose her own husband if her father fails to arrange her marriage within three years after her first menses.

[15] According to Hartmut Scharfe, if the epic svayaṃvara reflects an authentic tradition among kṣatriyas, it may have served as a mechanism for alleviating political pressures associated with marriage alliances.

In a social class where marriages were commonly arranged to secure political alliances, often with limited consideration for the preferences of the bride, the svayaṃvara allowed the woman a degree of autonomy in choosing her husband.

Alternatively, she might yield to the outcome of a skill-based competition, which relieved her father of the responsibility of choosing a suitor, thereby avoiding potential conflicts with powerful neighbouring rulers.

[18] Svayamvara remained as a significant plot device in many classical and mediaeval literature such as Kālidāsa’s Raghuvaṃśa and Chand Bardai's Prithviraj Raso.

This suggests that, in many contexts, svayamvara served as a preliminary selection process that required subsequent marriage rites to formalize the union in line with social expectations.

Few svayamvaras genuinely allow for free choice; instead, they typically follow the vīryaśulka model, where suitors compete in tests of valor set by the father, culminating in the girl selecting a "winner."

Although this formula does not appear overtly in the text, Jamison argues that it might exist in a more subtle, encoded form, suggesting that the concept of a maiden choosing her own husband was known in Vedic society.

Jamison points out that the repeated references to Sūryā's choice, the involvement of the Aśvins, and the emphasis on the chariot (a key element in the wedding) suggest a ritualized form of Svayaṃvara.

The central challenge involves a massive bow that must be strung and used to shoot an arrow at a revolving target while looking at its reflection in water kept beneath—a task requiring extraordinary strength, precision, and focus.

However, Draupadī, who is granted a degree of choice in the matter, rejects Karṇa, citing his low birth as a sūta (charioteer), though this scene is not universally agreed upon in various recensions of the text.

For instance, some South Indian versions might place greater emphasis on divine intervention and Kṛṣṇa's role, whereas northern recensions may highlight different aspects.

M.J. Kashalikar adds that different cultural and religious retellings, such as Jain texts, portray the Svayaṃvara with variations, reflecting diverse interpretations of her role.

Sukthankar notes that few aspects of Draupadī’s Svayaṃvara, although potentially a later addition, is structurally essential to the epic, setting the stage for the conflicts and alliances that drive the narrative.

Faced with the possibility of losing her husband forever, she takes active steps to uncover the truth and restore her marriage, showing both agency and resilience.

Parkhill highlights that Damayantī’s love for Nala, established before the Svayaṃvara through hearsay, introduces a personal and emotional dimension, shifting from traditional heroic ideals to a more individualistic and romantic view.

The text suggests that the failed expectations of the Svayaṃvara and Śālva’s inability to win play significant roles in Amba’s misfortune, highlighting the limited autonomy of the princesses, who are portrayed as passive in their destinies.

[41] In the story, when Savitrī, the renowned daughter of King Aśvapati of Mādra, reaches marriageable age, no suitor comes forward to ask for her hand, intimidated by her divine qualities and the virtue she possessed.

[11] The Harivaṃśa is a significant Sanskrit text that serves as an appendix to the Mahābhārata, providing additional details about the lives of the Yādava dynasty and the divine aspects of the Kṛṣṇa's life.

It expands upon and complements the main narrative of the Mahābhārata by offering enriched stories and supplementary episodes, thus playing a crucial role in the development of the epic's overarching themes and characters.

[11] Ludwik Sternbach explains that the ordinary Svayaṃvara in Smṛti literature is not a formalized or celebrated event as seen in epics but rather a legal provision that grants a maiden the right to choose her husband under specific circumstances.

Sternbach identifies an "ordinary Svayaṃvara" within the Smṛti texts, which is not a grand public event but rather a legal provision that allows a maiden the right to choose her husband if her father or guardian fails to arrange her marriage within a specified period after she reaches puberty.

Sternbach explains that this provision underscores the practical concerns of ensuring timely marriages and the importance of procreation in ancient Indian society, which viewed remaining unmarried as socially and religiously undesirable.

The Smṛtis require that the chosen husband be of equal caste and rank, blameless in character, and suitable in terms of family background, age, health, and other qualities.

The ordinary Svayaṃvara thus serves as a corrective measure, allowing a woman to marry if her guardian fails in his duties, but still within a controlled framework that upholds social order.

Sternbach further discusses how the Smṛtis provide practical guidelines on how a woman should proceed with her choice if she finds herself in this situation, including instructions on approaching the desired man and maintaining propriety throughout the process.

In this inscription, Rudradaman, a prominent ruler of the Western Kshatrapa dynasty, is praised not only for his military conquests and administrative achievements but also for his participation in svayaṃvaras of royal daughters.

[26] The most famous example of Svayaṃvara in its historical context is the legendary tale of Prithviraja III, King of Sapadalaksha (1166 – 1192), and Sanyogita, the princess of Kanauj, as narrated in the semi-historical epic poem Prithvirajaraso, composed by the bard Chand Bardai.