Treaty of Indian Springs (1821)

Beginning in earnest under the administration of American Indian agent Benjamin Hawkins in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century, the Muscogee, especially the Lower Creek, adopted European agriculture and Western culture.

A reaction against these changes was fanned by the arrival among the Muscogee of the Shawnee chief Tecumseh and the omens of the Great Comet of 1811 and the 1811–12 New Madrid earthquakes.

The Red Sticks were crushed in the decisive Battle of Horseshoe Bend of March 27, 1814 by a coalition including American, Choctaw and Cherokee forces.

First, it hoped for the cession of Muscogee land contiguous with Cherokee territory, in order to split the tribes and prevent a military alliance.

The Creek National Council swore not to cede any additional land to the United States, decreeing a sentence of death for violation of that pledge.