Weight management
[1][2] Most weight management techniques encompass long-term lifestyle strategies that promote healthy eating and daily physical activity.
[9][12] Attaining a healthy weight involves recognition of general techniques such as portion sizing, self-monitoring, and daily diet consistency.
[14] Furthermore, healthcare support in the form of primary care medical supervision and following up over time has been shown to be helpful for long-term weight management.
[5] Tailored activity to one's fitness level also encourages the body to heal properly and prevent any injuries as a result of exercise.
Technically speaking, BMR is the energy the body expends during the following specific conditions: immediately after waking up, while in a resting state, and after fasting for 12–14 hours.
Since BMI is not a perfect representation of a person's body fat percentage, other measurements like waist circumference are often used to better assess for unhealthy excess weight.
[5] Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), which is characterized by insulin resistance and hyperandrogenism, is a common condition that has been linked to obesity.
[24] A combination of genetics, lifestyle, and environment appear to contribute to the hormonal changes responsible for weight gain and obesity seen in individuals with PCOS.
[26] Individuals with a higher body mass index concerning for obesity may have increased levels of hormones, proinflammatory markers, and glycerol, which can contribute to insulin resistance.
[26] The combined effects of impaired pancreatic β-islet cells and insulin resistance increase the likelihood of developing diabetes.
[26] In individuals with blood sugar levels in the prediabetic range, weight loss was demonstrated to have many benefits including improved glycemic control and a reduced risk of developing type 2 diabetes.
[5] As weight loss depends partly on calorie intake, different kinds of calorie-reduced diets, such as those emphasizing particular macronutrients (low-fat, low-carbohydrate, etc.
[28][29][30][31][32][33][34] Nonetheless, a diet low in saturated fat complemented with high fiber can be helpful for those who are found to be obese based on BMI.
[5] The Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet focuses on increasing the consumption of fruits, vegetables, whole grains and low-fat dairy products.
[38][39][40][41] Combining the DASH diet with a reduced sodium intake will further decrease blood pressure, but is not required for therapeutic effect.
[37] More recent reviews of DASH have continued to advocate its efficacy as an affordable weight loss tool, but stress that diet adherence is key to produce the desired results.
[42] The Mediterranean diet involves eating fruits, vegetables, whole grains and beans while replacing butter with extra-virgin olive oil and limiting red meats, dairy, sweets, and processed foods.
[12] The plant-based diet is largely based on consumption of beans, grains, fruits, and vegetables and removal of meat, fish, and occasionally dairy and egg products from intake.
[54] Studies have demonstrated that when compared to solid foods, soup ingestion decreases the amount of energy intake and increases feelings of satiety.
Dietary fiber has been suggested to aid weight management by inducing satiety,[5] decreasing absorption of macronutrients and promoting secretion of gut hormones.
[64] Due to the high volume or water content of fiber-rich foods, fiber displaces available calories and nutrients from the diet.
[66] Satiety is also induced by increasing chewing, which limits food intake by promoting the secretion of saliva and gastric juice, resulting in an expansion of the stomach.
[63] Insulin regulates blood glucose levels while CCK adjusts gastric emptying, pancreatic secretion, and gall bladder contraction.
[70] Fiber may have the added benefit of helping consumers reduce food intake throughout the day, but results of studies examining this possibility have been conflicting.
[72] Resistant starch dilutes energy density of food intake, maintains a bulking effect similar to non-fermentable fiber, and increases the expression of gut hormones PYY and GLP-1.
[71][73][74][75] The increase in gut hormone expression affects neuronal pathways in the brain that contribute to long-term energy balance[76][77] and improved overall health of the intestines.
[79] Caffeine belongs to a class of compounds called methylxanthines and is present in coffee, tea, cocoa, chocolate and some cola drinks.
[80] Caffeine induces a thermogenic effect in the body by increasing sympathetic nervous system activity, which is an important regulator of energy expenditure.
[84] Green tea has been associated with decreasing blood glucose,[85] inhibiting hepatic and body fat accumulation,[85][86] and stimulating thermogenesis[87] due to the catechins present in formulations.
[88] Independent of the caffeine content, green tea has also been shown to increase energy expenditure and fat oxidation in humans.
