Zemstvo

[5] Created in 1875 after much consultation with Cossack officials, the zemstvos of the Don Host Oblast were dissolved after six years of operation.

From 1902-1905, there were widespread reports of a total loss of independence on the part of the peasant members of the zemstvos, with authority being ceded to the land captains.

Rising distrust between the central bureaucracy and the zemstvos was recognized by the Tsar in his 1903 manifesto on provincial administration.

Plehve worked closely with the Police Department of Russia, which he formerly led, to oust many zemstvo members.

[9] The zemstvos were originally given considerable power to impose taxation and to oversee education, medical relief, public welfare, food supply, and road maintenance in their localities.

Initially, radicals, such as the Socialist Revolutionary Party and the nihilists, were hostile, believing that the reforms were too minor.

As Prime Minister, Pyotr Stolypin gave zemstvos the budget and authority needed to carry out many of the projects under his agrarian reforms.

The reforms changed the legal status of men serving on the zemstvo, from that of private citizen to government official.

[21] The Minister of Interior expressly forbade zemstvo officials from Tver from contacting other provinces on any issue of national politics.

The assembly generally met once a year to address its docket and to appoint deputies to carry out orders given in response to issues the zemstvo had considered.

[23] The zemtsvo consisted of a representative council (zemskoye sobranye) and an executive board (zemskaya uprava) nominated by the former.

The members of the board consisted of five groups: The nobles had more weight in voting even though they constituted a tiny minority of the population.

[29] Women who owned sufficient property to gain a seat on a zemstvo could appoint a male proxy to vote for them.

[33] Absenteeism increased dramatically during this period and many zemstvos were considered to be well attended if half their members showed up to meetings.

[36][17] After 1890, with expanded oversight powers, the Ministry of Interior began to consistently obstruct the work of provincial zemstvos.

[41] The term "third element" was coined by Vice-governor Vladimir Kondoidi in 1900, to refer to radical zemstvo employees in Samara.

[45] This policy was also not popular, as the zemstvos were often seen by contemporary peasants as worthless institutions that raised a lot of taxes.

The chief sources of zemstvo revenue were taxes on lands, forests, country dwellings, factories, mines, and other real estate.

[51] In 1917 rural societies in Stavropol refused to pay taxes and boycotted schools, medical centers, and all other services after the zemstvo was first introduced there.

The governor reported: The dissatisfaction of the rural population with the introduction of the zemstvo was evident almost everywhere in the province shortly after the distribution of the tax lists.

Beginning in 1886 and continuing throughout the existence of the zemstvos, the central bureaucracy sought additional control over primary education.

Prior to 1870, peasant communities were required to provide educational facilities, and the zemstvos did not reliably pay teachers.

Nearly every other form of education received criticism, but teaching students to read the lyrics and memorize the tones of church songs was encouraged by all.

To accomplish this, the zemstvos promoted policies that limited the direct costs to peasants of their medical care and aimed to compensate providers through tax funds.

At several points in the early zemstvo period, budget concerns led to the laying off of practitioners.

Practitioners made several attempts to form a national organization for the advancement of medicine, but its implementation was delayed until 1885.

One of the goals this national system would achieve was uniform medical records to facilitate analyzing cases from other provinces.

Zemstvos opposed the stationary system throughout the 1870s on the grounds that remote villagers, who paid taxes towards the medical service, would not receive equal access.

This was widely known and tolerated by all, but the increasing criminalization of the feldsher's work symbolized what the zemstvo medical system still needed to achieve.

Alongside growing numbers of feldshers was an increasing professionalism on their part through more formal training as physician assistants.