Spanning over three thousand years, ancient Egypt was not one stable civilization but in constant change and upheaval, commonly split into periods by historians.

Due to the scarcity of wood,[4] the two predominant building materials used in ancient Egypt were sun-baked mud brick and stone, mainly limestone, but also sandstone and granite in considerable quantities.

For the casing, stones were used that had to be transported from farther away, predominantly white limestone from Tura and red granite from upper Egypt.

In a similar manner, the incised and flatly modeled surface adornment of the stone buildings may have derived from mud wall ornamentation.

Although the use of the arch was developed during the fourth dynasty, all monumental buildings are post and lintel constructions, with flat roofs constructed of huge stone blocks supported by the external walls and the closely spaced columns.Exterior and interior walls, as well as the columns and piers, were covered with hieroglyphic and pictorial frescoes and carvings painted in brilliant colors.

[13][14] As early as 2600 BC the architect Imhotep made use of stone columns whose surface was carved to reflect the organic form of bundled reeds, like papyrus, lotus and palm; in later Egyptian architecture faceted cylinders were also common.

They are composed of lotus (papyrus) stems which are drawn together into a bundle decorated with bands: the capital, instead of opening out into the shape of a bellflower, swells out and then narrows again like a flower in bud.

Vegetable plots, whether privately owned or belonging to temples, were laid out in squares divided by water channels, and located close to the Nile.

[16] Other design characteristics regarding mastabas from the Old Kingdom include having rectangular outlines, walls that were slanted, the use of stone and brick materials, and having the axis of the structure run North-South.

[16] Multiple elements make up the interior of a mastaba such as an offering chamber, statues for the dead, and a vault beneath which held the sarcophagus.

[20] Its design transformed the simple flat mastaba tomb into an elevated structure by replicating it in additional levels stacked one on top of the other, each smaller than the one below, resulting in a stepped profile.

The first attempt was what later became known as the Bent Pyramid, so-called because part-way through its construction the angle of its sides was reduced when the structure's weight threatened its collapse.

The face of a human, possibly a depiction of the pharaoh, on a lion's body was seen as a symbol of divinity among the Greeks fifteen hundred years later.

The immense size of the pyramids attracted robbers to the wealth that lay inside which caused the tombs to be robbed relatively soon after they were sealed in some cases.

The pylon was decorated with scenes of Ramesses's military triumphs (particularly the Battle of Qadesh); later pharaohs, particularly those of the Kushite dynasty, also recorded their victories there.

Modern visitors can also see a 25 m (82 ft) tall pink granite obelisk: this one of a matching pair until 1835, when the other one was taken to Paris where it now stands in the centre of the Place de la Concorde.

This area, and the pylon, were built at an oblique angle to the rest of the temple, presumably to accommodate the three pre-existing barque shrines located in the northwest corner.

The southern side of this courtyard is made up of a 36-column hypostyle court (i.e., a roofed space supported by columns) that leads into the dark inner rooms of the temple.

The site covers over 80 hectares (200 acres) and consists of a series of pylons, leading into courtyards, halls, chapels, obelisks, and smaller temples.

As with many other temples in Egypt, this one honors the gods and details the feats of the past (including thousands of years of history depicted by inscriptions on many of the walls and columns found on site, often modified or completely erased and redone by following rulers).

Among his many accomplishments, such as the expansion of Egypt's borders, he constructed a massive temple called the Ramesseum, located near Thebes, then the capital of the New Kingdom.

One of the most impressive building projects was the temple complex of Malkata, known among the ancient Egyptians as the "house of rejoicing", was constructed to serve his royal residence on the west bank of Thebes, just south of the Theban necropolis.

[37] Given the immense size of the site, along with its many buildings, courts, parade grounds, and housing, it is considered to have served not just as a temple and dwelling of the Pharaoh but a town.

The central area of the complex consisted in the Pharaoh's apartments that were made up of a number of rooms and courts, all of which were oriented around a columned banquet hall.

There is evidence the ceiling of this chamber was decorated with yellow stars on blue background, whereas the walls today show only the appearance of a white stucco over mud plaster.

In hall two, at-least one of the rooms appears to have been dedicated to the cult of Maat, which suggests the other three in this area might have likewise served such a religious purpose.

Their precise layouts varied over time, but they generally involved a corridor organized into multiple sections leading to a tomb chamber.

[46] Much of the period's funerary architecture has not survived,[48] though some of Alexandria's underground catacombs, shared by the city's inhabitants to bury their dead, have been preserved.

During the Middle Kingdom Period, the Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt would establish means of control throughout the Nubian Riverside by creating fortified stations.

[58] As early as the Roman period and as late as the 19th century, many ancient Egyptian obelisks were also reappropriated and transported to other countries, where they were often re-erected as prized monuments.