[6][7][8] Some research suggests the overuse of antibiotics in the raising of livestock is contributing to outbreaks of bacterial infections such as C.
[4] Clindamycin-resistant C. difficile was reported as the causative agent of large outbreaks of diarrheal disease in hospitals in New York, Arizona, Florida, and Massachusetts between 1989 and 1992.
[9] Geographically dispersed outbreaks of C. difficile strains resistant to fluoroquinolone antibiotics, such as ciprofloxacin and levofloxacin, were also reported in North America in 2005.
[15] This is evident in that Mycobacterium tuberculosis must cause a pulmonary disease in order to be successfully transmitted from one person to another.
[14][17] Resistance of Mycobacterium tuberculosis to isoniazid, rifampin, and other common treatments has become an increasingly relevant clinical challenge.
[18][19] Mycoplasma genitalium is a small pathogenic bacterium that lives on the ciliated epithelial cells of the urinary and genital tracts in humans.
It causes inflammation in the urethra (urethritis) both in men and women, which is associated with mucopurulent discharge in the urinary tract, and burning while urinating.
[22] Efficacy of azithromycin against M. genitalium has decreased substantially, which is thought to occur through SNPs in the 23S rRNA gene.
[26] Found on the mucous membranes and the human skin of around a third of the population, it is extremely adaptable to antibiotic pressure.
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) was first detected in Britain in 1961, and it is now "quite common" in hospitals[citation needed].
[26] The major mechanism of resistance involves the introduction of mutations in genes encoding penicillin-binding proteins.
Selective pressure is thought to play an important role, and use of beta-lactam antibiotics has been implicated as a risk factor for infection and colonization.
Physicians rely on ciprofloxacin and azithromycin for treating patients with severe disease although Campylobacter is showing resistance to these antibiotics.
[4] Klebsiella pneumoniae carbapenemase (KPC)-producing bacteria are a group of emerging highly drug-resistant Gram-negative bacilli causing infections associated with significant morbidity and mortality whose incidence is rapidly increasing in a variety of clinical settings around the world.
[26] Klebsiella pneumoniae includes numerous mechanisms for antibiotic resistance, many of which are located on highly mobile genetic elements.
[30] Carbapenem antibiotics (heretofore often the treatment of last resort for resistant infections) are generally not effective against KPC-producing organisms.
[31] Infection with Escherichia coli and Salmonella can result from the consumption of contaminated food and polluted water.
[33] This study focused on the development of resistance in E. coli to three antibiotic drugs: ampicillin, tetracycline, and nalidixic acid.
[34] Acinetobacter is a gram-negative bacteria that causes pneumonia or bloodstream infections in critically ill patients.
[26] On November 5, 2004, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reported an increasing number of Acinetobacter baumannii bloodstream infections in patients at military medical facilities in which service members injured in the Iraq/Kuwait region during Operation Iraqi Freedom and in Afghanistan during Operation Enduring Freedom were treated.
[26] One of the most worrisome characteristics of P. aeruginosa is its low antibiotic susceptibility, which is attributable to a concerted action of multidrug efflux pumps with chromosomally encoded antibiotic resistance genes (e.g., mexAB-oprM, mexXY) and the low permeability of the bacterial cellular envelopes.