[3][4] Beginning in late antiquity, several notable Arab tribes rose to prominence in the Levant, such as the Tanukhids, whose main base during the time of their most famous ruler, Queen Mavia was in Aleppo,[5] as well as the Salihids, and Ghassanids, whose capital was in the Golan Heights.
Prior to the Muslim conquest, Arab presence in the Levant primarily consisted of Bedouin tribes inhabiting borderlands and desert regions, while the cultivated interior areas were mainly populated by Christians, Jews, and Samaritans.
[10] The Umayyad era saw further settlement in the Levant, as the rulers aimed to maintain distinct tribal identities and manage demographics through population transfers.
[12] Later, minor waves of Arab migration across the Middle East occurred due to political circumstances, some of which gave rise to prominent Druze dynasties such as banu Ma'an.
In the southern Levant, Muslim settlers, many of them Arabs, moved into the area, while Christian, Jewish, and Samaritan populations gradually emigrated, with varying rates of conversion among those who remained.
[15] Local fears and concerns about the Bedouin are reflected in both Talmudic and Patristic literature,[15] with the latter documenting Arab raids and acts of violence against monks.
[17] Trade relations also existed, with Meccan caravans traveling north, and Arab sources note that the Prophet's ancestors, including his grandfather Hishim and father 'Abdallah, engaged in business in Gaza.
[18][20] Migrating in significant numbers[21] to southern Syria and northern Transjordan,[20] they established a vassal kingdom under Byzantine authority,[21] with their center in Jabiya, a settlement located in the eastern Golan.
[20] The Rashidun Caliphate, under Abu Bakr and Umar ibn al-Khattab, ascended to power following the death of Muhammad in 632 CE, rapidly expanding through military campaigns and conquering the Levant.
[22] Additional tribesmen who immigrated mainly settled in abandoned parts of towns, rather than in rural areas or new camp cities, as happened in Iraq.
[22] The numbers of Arabs who settled in the eastern provinces is unknown, but it is assumed they were a small minority among the native population, the total which was Bernard Lewis estimates as a "Quarter of a million" towards the end of the first century of Islam.
[12] While the Arabs caused less destruction during their conquest than the Persians had few decades earlier,[9] part of the Levant's urban population fled upon the arrival of Muslim forces.
Unlike in Iraq and Mesopotamia, many, if not the majority, of the Muslim Arabs who came to Syria appeared to establish their homes in these urban centers, often occupying areas vacated by fleeing Christians.
[27] However, settlement in rural areas appeared limited, as most land available for Muslim settlers had been previously vacated, and few peasants fled during the conquest, likely due to economic reasons.
[27] The Umayyad Caliphate, which succeeded the Rashidun in 661, established its center in Syria and designated Damascus as its capital, thereby transforming the region into a major metropolitan province.
This approach applied to both the Arab tribes in the Arabian Peninsula or previously living on the borders of Palestine and those who joined as part of the Muslim army, maintaining their separate status from the local inhabitants.
According to Al-Baladhuri, Mu'awiya settled Arab tribes and Persians in coastal Syria, and after the fall of Tripoli, it was "made a dwelling-place for a large body of Jews".
"[11] He wrote that "These Arab tribes, both those who had formerly lived on the borders of Palestine and those who came to it within the framework of the Muslim army, were a separate entity of the population of the country".
Ya'qubi described a diverse mix of tribes in Jund Filastin, including the pre-Islamic Lakhm and Judham, and the post-conquest 'Amilah, Kinda, Qays, and Kinana.
[34] He also infers that Yaqubi's description indicates that "although emigrating elites from principal cities left their luxurious properties behind, Muslim immigrants did not occupy them, an impression corroborated by archaeological findings.
"[34] According to Ya'qubi, the 'Amila tribe settled in Jabal al-Jalil (modern-day south Lebanon and northern Israel), with nearby Tyre inhabited by people of various origins.
[35] Khirbet Abu Suwwana, an archaeological site in the northern Judaean Desert founded in the early 8th century was likely established by nomadic groups who penetrated the area after the Muslim conquest.
[17] Al-Tabari writes that Caliph Marwan I (r. 684–685) faced pressure to honor his promise to the Banu Kindah, allowing them to settle in the Balqa region of Transjordan.
Each of the Syrian military districts (junds) was allocated a corresponding Spanish region: the men of Damascus settled in Elvira, those from the Jordan in Malaga, Palestine in Sidonia, Hims in Seville, and Qinnasrin in Jaen.
As Christian, Jewish, and Samaritan populations gradually emigrated, large numbers of Muslim, predominantly Arab, settlers moved into the region.