Carbonization

For the final pyrolysis temperature, the amount of heat applied controls the degree of carbonization and the residual content of foreign elements.

The tars and smoke produced from carbonization, although not directly poisonous, may have long-term damaging effects on the respiratory system.

The tars and pyroligneous liquors can also seriously contaminate streams and affect drinking water supplies for humans and animals.

Kilns and pits, as distinct from retorts and other sophisticated systems, do not normally produce liquid effluent - the by-products are mostly dispersed into the air as vapours.

This material was then treated with sulfuric acid, which functionalized the sheets with sulfonite, carboxyl, and hydroxyl catalytic sites.