Child

Preadolescence is commonly defined as ages 9–12, ending with the major onset of puberty, with markers such as menarche, spermarche, and the peak of height velocity occurring.

Although biologically a child is a human being between the stages of birth and puberty,[1][2] adolescents are legally considered children, as they tend to lack adult rights and are still required to attend compulsory schooling in many cultures, though this varies.

The English philosopher John Locke was particularly influential in defining this new attitude towards children, especially with regard to his theory of the tabula rasa, which considered the mind at birth to be a "blank slate".

During the early period of capitalism, the rise of a large, commercial middle class, mainly in the Protestant countries of the Dutch Republic and England, brought about a new family ideology centred around the upbringing of children.

Building on the ideas of John Locke and other 17th-century thinkers, Jean-Jaques Rousseau described childhood as a brief period of sanctuary before people encounter the perils and hardships of adulthood.

[31] The idea of childhood as a locus of divinity, purity, and innocence is further expounded upon in William Wordsworth's "Ode: Intimations of Immortality from Recollections of Early Childhood", the imagery of which he "fashioned from a complex mix of pastoral aesthetics, pantheistic views of divinity, and an idea of spiritual purity based on an Edenic notion of pastoral innocence infused with Neoplatonic notions of reincarnation".

[32] With the onset of industrialisation in England in 1760, the divergence between high-minded romantic ideals of childhood and the reality of the growing magnitude of child exploitation in the workplace, became increasingly apparent.

By the late 18th century, British children were specially employed in factories and mines and as chimney sweeps,[33] often working long hours in dangerous jobs for low pay.

British reformers attacked child labor from the 1830s onward, bolstered by the horrific descriptions of London street life by Charles Dickens.

In 1961 he published a study of paintings, gravestones, furniture, and school records, finding that before the 17th century, children were represented as mini-adults.

Maintaining children's health implies offering them healthy foods, insuring they get enough sleep and exercise, and protecting their safety.

), intellectual (social skills, community norms, ethics and general knowledge) and emotional development (empathy, compassion, and friendships).

[11] Children who are being raised in a hurried and pressured style may limit the protective benefits they would gain from child-driven play.

Poor children confront widespread environmental inequities as they experience less social support, and their parents are less responsive and more authoritarian.

It is strongest in urban working class industrial districts where children are traditionally free to play out in the streets for long periods without supervision.

Since the advent of indoor distractions such as video games, and television, concerns have been expressed about the vitality – or even the survival – of children's street culture.

[59] Nature Deficit Disorder, a term coined by Richard Louv in his 2005 book Last Child in the Woods, refers to the trend in the United States and Canada towards less time for outdoor play,[60][61] resulting in a wide range of behavioral problems.

[62] With increasing use of cellphones, computers, video games and television, children have more reasons to stay inside rather than outdoors exploring.

[63] Research in 2007 has drawn a correlation between the declining number of National Park visits in the U.S. and increasing consumption of electronic media by children.

[70] According to a UN report, warfare is preventing 28 million children worldwide from receiving an education, due to the risk of sexual violence and attacks in schools.

[74] In 2013, child marriage rates of female children under the age of 18 reached 75% in Niger, 68% in Central African Republic and Chad, 66% in Bangladesh, and 47% in India.

In 2017 the global total fertility rate was estimated to be 2.37 children per woman,[78] adding about 80 million people to the world population per year.

In order to measure the total number of children, scientists often prefer the completed cohort fertility at age 50 years (CCF50).

This includes responding to allegations or suspicions of abuse, providing support and services to protect children, and holding those who have harmed them accountable.

[89] In order to achieve these goals, research suggests that child protection services should be provided in a holistic way.

[90][91][92] This means taking into account the social, economic, cultural, psychological, and environmental factors that can contribute to the risk of harm for individual children and their families.

[95] This includes providing a safe environment for children to grow and develop, protecting them from physical, emotional and sexual abuse, and ensuring they have access to education, healthcare, and resources to fulfill their basic needs.

At the level of prevention, their aim includes supporting and strengthening families to reduce social exclusion, and to lower the risk of separation, violence and exploitation.

The World Health Organization estimated that 88% of the existing global burden of disease caused by climate change affects children under five years of age.

[100] Children under 14 are 44 percent more likely to die from environmental factors,[101] and those in urban areas are disproportionately impacted by lower air quality and overcrowding.