History of Ireland (795–1169)

Brian's descendants failed to maintain a unified throne, and regional squabbling over territory led indirectly to the invasion of the Normans under Richard de Clare in 1169.

Since the modern excavations of Dublin started in 1961, followed by similar efforts in Wexford, Waterford and Limerick, great advances have been made in the understanding of the physical character of the towns established during this period.

Historians of early medieval Ireland, seeking to conclude their narratives on a high note, have traditionally done so after recounting the death of the famous high-king Brian Bórama (Boru) at the battle of Clontarf in 1014.

MacNeill stressed the reality of the high-kingship of Ireland and the existence of many of those institutions of government which Orpen found wanting, and claimed that Irish law had a national character.

Cenél nEógain had become the more powerful of the two in 789,[9] and had expanded east and southwards, gaining control over the important monastic centre Armagh and the large sub-kingdom of Airgíalla.

The Dál gCais (not yet known under this name) had defeated the Corcu Modruad in 744 and taken control over the area in present County Clare from which they would later rise to dominance, but were not yet a significant power in Munster.

These early raids interrupted the golden age of Christian Irish culture and marked the beginning of two hundred years of intermittent warfare, with waves of Viking raiders plundering monasteries and towns throughout Ireland.

The early raids on Ireland seem to have been aristocratic free enterprise, and named leaders appear in the Irish annals: Saxolb (Soxulfr) in 837, Turges (Þurgestr) in 845, Agonn (Hákon) in 847.

[12] Áed Oirdnide of the Cenél nEógain branch of the Northern Uí Néill became King of Tara in 797, after the death of his predecessor, father-in-law and political rival Donnchad Midi.

[16] Combining military campaigns with manipulation of ecclesiastical affairs, he embarked on a policy of aggressive expansion to counter the growth in power of the Uí Néill.

[note 5] This meeting did not result in any lasting peace though; in 840 Feidlimid led an army into Mide and encamped at Tara, thereby challenging the Uí Néill also in the north.

Máel Sechnaill had more success as high king than his predecessors Niall Caille and Conchobar Donnchada (Duncan) in dealing with the south, and forced Munster into submission in 858 and as noted above, Osraige in 859.

Byrne notes: "Máel Sechnaill's unprecedented success in achieving the high-kingship of all Ireland was marred by the chronic complaint of Irish politics: having united the Ulaid, Munster, Osraige, Connacht and Leinster, he was attacked at the end of his reign by a combination of Uí Néill kings.

After the death of Máel Sechnaill he is counted in the regal lists as high king, following the established scheme where this alternated between Cenél nEógain in the north and Clann Cholmáin of Mide.

Ó Corráin observes: "Ironically, [Áed Findliath's] success may have held back the economic development of the north and ultimately prevented the growth of port towns like those on the east and south coasts, on which the Leinster and Munster kings subsequently depended for much of their wealth.

[37] Scholarly activity, for which the Irish are famous in the early Medieval period, consisted of the writing of poetry, the production of Christian devotional texts, the development of the science of computus, and the compilation of elaborate law tracts.

[41] The Vikings founded many other coastal towns, and after several generations of coexistence and intermarriage a group of mixed Irish and Norse ethnic background arose (often called Norse-Gaels or Hiberno-Norse).

Norse influence shows in the Norse-derived names of many contemporary Irish kings (e.g. Magnus, Lochlann or Sitric), and in DNA evidence in some residents of these coastal cities to this day.

Apart from his victories over the Norse, Muirchertach led campaigns forcing other provincial kingdoms into submission, most notably taking the king of Munster Cellachán Caisil captive in 941.

Congalach mac Máel Mithig, known as Cnogba, succeeded (Duncan) Donnchad Donn as Uí Néill overking in 944 (Muirchertag, who otherwise might have been the obvious successor, had been killed in 943).

When Amlaíb Cuaran returned to Ireland the next year, he became ruler of Dublin and acted as an ally of Congalach in the struggle against Ruaidrí ua Canannáin, a rival Uí Néill claimant for High Kingship from Cenél Conaill.

Having gained control over Munster, he tried to extend his authority by raiding Osraige in 982 and 983, and also, according to the annals of Innisfallen, entering an alliance with the Norse of Waterford, with the intention of attacking Dublin.

[note 14] In Munster, internal strife almost immediately began between Brian's sons Donnchad and Tadc, and Dúngal Ua Donnchada of Eóganachta also claimed the kingship of the province.

Conchobur clannmin, fo-chen!Áed, Gairbith, Diarmait durgen,Donnchad, dá Níall cen snim snéidrig na ré sea co roreid.

[51] Flann Mainistrech had written Ríg Themra tóebaige iar tain, a regnal poem on the Christian (Uí Néill) kings of Tara some time between 1014 and 1022.

Unlike Máel Sechnaill in 980 or Brian in 999, he wasn't content with just looting the city and expelling the Hiberno-Norse ruler (Echmarcach mac Ragnaill); in an unprecedented move he assumed the kingship "of the foreigners" (ríge Gall) himself.

The written request for Máel Ísu's consecration, as preserved in Eadmer's Historia Novorum, is subscribed by bishops from Munster, Mide, Dublin and Leinster.

Malachy, in close cooperation with (Duncan) Donnchad Ua Cerbaill, king of Fernmag/Airgialla, established the first Irish Cistercian house at Mellifont in 1142, and also facilitated the first Augustinian community of the Arrouaisian observance.

No formal attempts on getting papal approval for the structure chosen at Rathbreasail are known before Malachy sought pallia for the two incumbent archbishops at Cashel and Armagh during his trip to the Continent in 1139/40.

The main challenge must have been to reach an accommodation with Dublin, and Tairrdelbach Ua Conchobair, presently the most powerful king in Ireland, was eager to increase Connacht influence on the church.