The Indonesian archipelago has been a valuable region for trade since at least the seventh century, when Sumatra's Srivijaya and later Java's Majapahit kingdoms engaged in commerce with entities from mainland China and the Indian subcontinent.

Following three and a half centuries of Dutch colonialism, Indonesia secured its independence after World War II and has since faced challenges such as corruption, natural disasters, and separatism, alongside democratisation and rapid economic growth.

[25] Around 2,000 BCE, Austronesian peoples began arriving from the island now known as Taiwan in Southeast Asia, gradually displacing native Melanesians to the far eastern part of the archipelago as they spread east,[26] and would eventually form the majority of Indonesia's modern population.

The archipelago's strategic location fostered inter-island and international exchange with civilisations from the Indian subcontinent and mainland China, profoundly influencing Indonesian history and culture through trade.

Majapahit, a Hindu kingdom established in the late 13th century in eastern Java, dominated much of the archipelago under the leadership of Gajah Mada in a period often referred to as the "Golden Age" in Indonesian history.

[45] Only two days after Japan's surrender in August 1945, Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta issued the Proclamation of Indonesian Independence, and they became the country's first president and vice-president along with Sutan Sjahrir as Prime Minister.

[52] Tensions between the latter two culminated in an attempted coup in 1965, leading to a violent anti-communist purge led by the army's Major General Suharto that killed at least 500,000 people and imprisoned around a million more.

Indonesia was the worst affected country by the 1997 Asian financial crisis,[67] bringing out widespread discontent with the New Order's corruption and political suppression and ultimately ended Suharto's presidency.

The country's major rivers, primarily in Kalimantan and New Guinea, include the Kapuas, Barito, Mamberamo, Sepik and Mahakam, serving as vital transportation and communication routes for remote riverine communities.

[83] There is a variation in rainfall patterns, with regions like western Sumatra, Java, and the interiors of Kalimantan and Papua receiving more precipitation, while areas closer to Australia, such as Nusa Tenggara, are drier.

Recognised by Conservation International as one of 17 megadiverse countries, Indonesia hosts one of the world's highest levels of biodiversity due to its tropical climate, large size, and archipelagic geography.

Indonesia faces severe environmental challenges due to extensive deforestation,[110] peatland destruction, and over-exploitation of resources, driven by industries such as logging, plantations and agriculture since the 1970s,[111] and in most recent years, palm oil.

[117] They also threaten indigenous and endemic species, with the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) listing many as critically endangered, such as the Bali myna,[118] Sumatran orangutan,[119] and Javan rhinoceros.

[125] Approximately 390 marine areas are managed by government bodies, communities, and other sectors, with potential for classification as other effective area-based conservation measures (OECMs), though there is no national mechanism for reporting them.

Following the fall of the New Order in 1998, sweeping constitutional reforms has restructured the executive, legislative, and judicial branches while maintaining its unitary state framework despite the push to decentralise powers to regional entities.

[132] The People's Consultative Assembly (Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat, MPR) is Indonesia's highest representative body, responsible for amending the constitution, inaugurating or impeaching the president, and formalising state policies.

Below this are districts (kecamatan, called distrik in Papua), and the fourth level comprises villages, known by various names like desa, kelurahan, kampung, nagari (in West Sumatra), or gampong (in Aceh).

[163] The country also plays a role in maintaining international peace and security, deploying thousands of military and police personnel to multiple United Nations peacekeeping missions, including in Lebanon, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Mali.

[198] It imports refined and crude petroleum, and vehicle parts, with major trade partners including China, the United States, Japan, Singapore, India, Malaysia, South Korea, and Thailand.

Railways are primarily located in Java and parts of Sumatra and Sulawesi,[221] serving freight and passenger transport, including commuter and inter-city rail services like those in the Greater Jakarta and Yogyakarta.

[271][272] Before the arrival of major world religions, Indonesia's natives practised animism and dynamism, worshiping ancestral spirits and believing in the supernatural (hyang) inhabiting natural elements, such as large trees, mountains and forests.

[276] Both religions shaped Indonesia's religious history through influential empires like Majapahit, Srivijaya, and Sailendra, leaving a lasting cultural impact that remains today despite both no longer being the majority.

[33][281] By the 16th century, Islam had become the dominant religion on Java and Sumatra, resulting from the combination of trade, dawah such as by the Wali Sanga and Chinese explorer Zheng He, and military campaigns by several sultanates.

[282][283] Catholicism and Protestantism were later introduced through missionary efforts during European colonisation, such as by Jesuit Francis Xavier,[284][285] though the spread of the former faced challenges under the policies of VOC and the Dutch colonial era.

[291][292] Interfaith relations in Indonesia are significantly shaped by political leadership and civil society, guided by the first principle of Pancasila,[293][294] which emphasises belief in a supreme deity and religious tolerance.

Indonesia holds 16 items recognised by UNESCO as Intangible Cultural Heritage, including wayang puppet theatre, batik, angklung, the saman dance, and pencak silat.

Discoveries of megalithic sculptures led to the flourishing of tribal art among the Nias, Batak, Asmat, Dayak, and Toraja communities,[328][329][330] who utilised wood and stone as primary sculpting materials.

[340][341] Traditional attire varies by region and by each province, such as the Batak ulos, Malay and Minangkabau songket, and Sasak ikat, and is commonly worn for ceremonies, weddings, and formal events.

[351] In the post-Suharto era, the industry saw a resurgence,[352] and independent filmmakers tackled previously censored themes like race, religion and love,[350] producing notable films such as Petualangan Sherina (2000) and Ada Apa dengan Cinta?

[363] Influenced by the dynamics of the country's political and social landscape,[363][364] modern literature includes works from notable figures like Chairil Anwar, Pramoedya Ananta Toer, and Ayu Utami.