The terrain is generally rugged and steep, with narrow valleys bounded by high ridges opening in their upper glacial parts.

Rocks are strongly folded in places and composed mainly of granite, gneiss and schist, with the occasional bed of marble.

[3] In general, silver fir 'Abies pindrow' and spruce 'Picea wallichian', mixed with cedar Cedrus deodar and blue pine Pinus griffithii are predominant from 2,400m to 3,000m.

At lower altitudes (1,700-2,400m) occur nearly pure stands of cedar and blue pine, and moist temperate deciduous forest, represented by horsechestnut, Aesculus indica, walnut Juglans regia, maple, Acer spp.

poplar, Populus ciliata, hazel Corylus cornutam bird cherry Pasus corfnuta, ash Fraxinus cornuta and yew Taxus wallichiana.