[3] Language production consists of several interdependent processes which transform a nonlinguistic message into a spoken, signed, or written linguistic signal.
In this stage of language production, the mental representation of the words to be spoken is transformed into a sequence of speech sounds to be pronounced.
Next, the positional level representation is built, which functions to encode the phonological forms of words and the order they are found in sentence structures.
[10] Fluency can be defined in part by prosody, which is shown graphically by a smooth intonation contour, and by a number of other elements: control of speech rate, relative timing of stressed and unstressed syllables, changes in amplitude, changes in fundamental frequency.
Verbal working memory is central to managing phonological information, such as words and sentences, and is heavily involved in organizing syntax and lexical retrieval.
[27] Spatial working memory contributes to the organization and sequencing of ideas, ensuring coherence and logical progression.
[28] These components often work in tandem, drawing on specialized neural networks to enable effective language production across various contexts.
Abstract language, such as metaphors or theoretical concepts, places a greater demand on verbal working memory due to the need to synthesize non-physical, conceptual relationships.
[27] Conversely, concrete language, which describes tangible and sensory-based ideas, activates both verbal and visual working memory.
Concrete ideas often enhance recall and comprehension by drawing on mental imagery, directly linking verbal and visual systems.
Simple tasks like writing single words are less taxing, as they require minimal linguistic planning and retrieval.
[30] However, producing complex sentences or multi-layered narratives involves greater cognitive load, engaging verbal and visual working memory for planning, syntactic integration, and coherence.
[28] Studies show that writing complex sentences can compromise fluency and coherence, as increased working memory demands make balancing retention and structure more difficult.
Writing requires sustained attention, planning, encoding, and motor execution, all of which significantly tax verbal working memory.
[31] Maintaining phonological representations while managing the slower output of writing intensifies working memory load compared to the transient nature of speech.
In contrast, oral production benefits from immediate feedback and conversational context, which reduce cognitive load and allow for more automatic language processing.
Affect, or emotional state, plays a crucial role in language production, interacting with working memory resources to shape performance.
[32] Conversely, negative emotions, such as anxiety, reduce working memory capacity and disrupt fluency, particularly during complex tasks.
[32] Studies show that affect impacts not only fluency and coherence but also the tone and approach to writing, emphasizing the interconnectedness of cognitive and emotional processes in language production.