It was also the time of the rise of sramana movements (including Buddhism and Jainism), which challenged the religious orthodoxy of the Vedic period.

Ancient Buddhist texts like the Anguttara Nikaya[3] make frequent reference to sixteen great kingdoms and republics that had developed and flourished in a belt stretching from Gandhara in the northwest to Anga in the east to Asmaka in the southern part of the subcontinent.

[7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14] Buddhist and other texts only incidentally refer to sixteen great nations (Solasa Mahajanapadas) that existed prior to the time of the Buddha.

"[20] The first reference to the Angas is found in the Atharvaveda where they find mention along with the Magadhas, Gandharis and the Mujavats, apparently as a despised people.

The country of Avanti roughly corresponded to modern Malwa, Nimar and adjoining parts of today's Madhya Pradesh.

Both Mahishmati and Ujjaini stood on the southern high road called Dakshinapatha which extended from Rajagriha to Pratishthana (modern Paithan).

[26] Archaeologist Dilip Kumar Chakrabarti has proposed that Suktimati can be identified as the ruins of a large early historical city, at a place with the modern-day name Itaha, on the outskirts of Rewa, Madhya Pradesh.

Taksashila and Pushkalavati, the two cities of this Mahajanapada, are said to have been named after Taksa and Pushkara, the two sons of Bharata, a prince of Ayodhya and younger brother of Lord Rama.

[29] Hecataeus of Miletus (549–468) refers to Kaspapyros (Kasyapura or Purushapura, i.e., modern day Peshawar) as a Gandharic city.

Gandhara Mahajanapada of Buddhist traditions included territories of east Afghanistan, and north-west of the Punjab (modern districts of Peshawar (Purushapura) and Rawalpindi).

The Taksashila University was a renowned centre of learning in ancient times, where scholars from all over the world came to seek higher education.

[37] The cis-Hindukush region from Nurestan up to Rajauri in southwest of Kashmir sharing borders with the Daradas and the Gandharas constituted the Kamboja country.

[39] The trans-Hindukush region including the Pamirs and Badakhshan which shared borders with the Bahlikas (Bactria) in the west and the Lohas and Rishikas of Sogdiana/Fergana in the north, constituted the Parama-Kamboja country.

In a struggle for supremacy that followed in the 6th/5th century BCE, the growing state of the Magadhas emerged as the predominant power in ancient India, annexing several of the Janapadas of the Majjhimadesa.

This refers to the Kasis, Kosalas, Kurus, Panchalas, Vatsyas and other neo-Vedic tribes of the east Panjab of whom nothing was ever heard except in the legend and poetry.

Cyrus II is said to have destroyed the famous Kamboja city called Kapisi (modern Begram) in Paropamisade.

Several jataka tales bear witness to the superiority of its capital over other cities in India and speak highly of its prosperity and opulence.

The Kashis along with the Kosalas and Videhans find mention in Vedic texts and appear to have been a closely allied people.

Later, the kingdom was ruled by the famous king Prasenajit during the era of Mahavira and Buddha, followed by his son Vidudabha (Virudhaka).

The country of the Kurus roughly corresponded to the modern Thanesar, state of Delhi, and Meerut district of Uttar Pradesh.

At Buddha's time, the Kuru country was ruled by a titular chieftain (king consul) named Korayvya.

Though a well known monarchical people in the earlier period, the Kurus are known to have switched to a republican form of government during the 6th to 5th centuries BCE.

In the 4th century BCE, Kautiliya's Arthashastra also attests the Kurus following the Rajashabdopajivin (Royal Consul) constitution.

[60] The kingdom of the Magadhas roughly corresponded to the modern districts of Patna and Gaya in southern Bihar and parts of Bengal in the east.

During the Buddhist period, the Mallakas Kshatriya were a republican people with their dominion consisting of nine territories[62] corresponding to the nine confederated clans.

The Mallakas originally had a monarchical form of government but later they switched to one of Samgha (republican union), the members of which called themselves rajas.

The Mallakas appeared to have formed an alliance with the Licchhavis for self-defense but lost their independence not long after Buddha's death and their dominions were annexed to the Magadhan empire.

[citation needed] The country of the Matsya or Macchā tribe lay to the south of the Kurus and west of the Yamuna, which separated them from the Panchalas.

Avantiputra, the king of Surasena, was the first among the chief disciples of Buddha, through whose help Buddhism gained ground in Mathura country.

[citation needed] Vajji or Vṛji was a confederacy of neighbouring clans including the Licchavis and one of the principal mahājanapadas of Ancient India.