Munsa is an archaeological site in Uganda, located in the south-eastern part of Bunyoro (0°49′30″N 31°18′00″E / 0.82500°N 31.30000°E / 0.82500; 31.30000), and is commonly recognized by a rocky hill known by the locals as "Bikegete",[1] which is enclosed within an earthworks system of ancient ditches.
[3] Excavations of this site have reconstructed the late-Holocene environmental history through evidence of iron-working, human burials, food production, and earthworks.
[4] According to the limited archaeological evidence available, permanent settlement at Munsa was believed to have ceased around the end of the seventeenth century AD.
[4][5] Investigations at Munsa began in the 1950s when Eric Lanning mapped the earthworks, collected surface artifacts, and inquired about oral traditions.
[1] Munsa consists of settlement debris, human burials, rock-shelters, and evidence of iron working, grain storage, and the consumption of cattle.
The excavations were placed at the foot of Bikegete, with units yielding potsherds, a possible ceramic brazier fragment, bone mallets, iron artifacts, grindstones, cattle teeth, a green glass bead, and postholes from previous structures.
[1] The ground level at Munsa are granite intrusions, and quartzites[6] that have become visible on the surface, forming isolated, rocky hills.
Rainfall at Munsa is bimodal, with the wet periods determined by cycles over the Indian Ocean and El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) episodes.
[6][7] Sediment cores samples were collected from a small swamp nearest each trench, and a total of 15 radiocarbon dates were obtained.
[6] Topsoil was underlain by a loose, black layer, up to about 30–40 centimetres (12–16 in) thick, that contained over 170 kilograms (370 lb) of slag, tuyère fragments, furnace lining, and potsherds.
Beneath this layer was a loose reddish deposit with few archaeological finds, some 10–20 centimetres (3.9–7.9 in) in thickness, which was a fill of a burial pit.
[8] The furnace was identified on top of Bigekete Hill, and it is likely that iron smelting activities were confined to the north-western portion of the site.
Excavations on Bigekite Hill uncovered iron slag, tuyère fragments, furnace lining, and numerous potsherds.
The tuyères varied in colour from reddish or orange-yellow to dark yellowish grey, depending on how close the fragments were to the heat of the furnace.
The discovery of human burials, food production, iron-working, and earthworks suggested that Munsa may have once been a forested region supporting high densities of herbivores.
The remains at Munsa also provide an unparalleled opportunity to consider iron production in the context of habitation, burials, and other broader archaeological features.