[1][2] Agents or methods of neuroenhancement are intended to affect cognitive, social, psychological, mood, or motor benefits beyond normal functioning.
Pharmacological neuroenhancement agents may include compounds thought to be nootropics, such as modafinil,[1][3] caffeine,[4][5] and other drugs used for treating people with neurological disorders.
[1][19] Modafinil may impair one's self-monitoring ability; a common trend found in research studies indicated that participants rated their performances on cognitive tests higher than it was, suggesting an "overconfidence" effect.
[19] A comparison between the sales of MPH to the number of people for whom it was prescribed revealed a disproportionate ratio, indicating high abuse.
[20] Studies are too preliminary to determine whether there are any cognitive-enhancing effects of agents such as memantine or acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (examples: donepezil, galantamine).
[6][19] In the drug trials, participants reported the following adverse reactions to use of donepezil, memantine, MPH, modafinil or caffeine:[5] gastrointestinal complaints (nausea), headache, dizziness, nightmares, anxiety, drowsiness, nervousness, restlessness, sleep disturbances, and insomnia,[6] diuresis.
[27] Quality standards, validation and authentication, sampling and lab testing are commonly substandard or absent for products thought to be cognitive enhancers, including dietary supplements.
[37] A 2024 study based on a representative sample of more than 20,000 adults in Germany showed that around 70% of those surveyed had taken substances with the aim of improving mental performance within a year, without a medical prescription.