[22] The Numidians were a nomadic tribal people who inhabited North Africa, specifically the regions that now form northern Algeria and western Tunisia, during the final three centuries of the first millennium BC.

Their lands bordered the Carthaginian hinterlands in eastern Tunisia to the east, the territory of the Mauri tribes to the west, and the Saharan edge occupied by the Gaetulians to the south.

By the time of the Second Punic War in 218 BC, the previously scattered Numidian tribes had consolidated into two great and rival tribal groups: the Massylii in eastern Numidia, and the Masaesyli in the west.

[14][15] Settled in Cirta, where he surrounded himself with the refinements of Greek and Roman civilizations, Masinissa disciplined his Berbers and trained them in agricultural work.

Carthage, complaining about Massinissa’s encroachments as he had taken control of most of the emporia or African ports, thereby ruining its trade, appealed to Rome, which sent commissioners to investigate the grievances on-site.

Among these envoys was Marcus Cato, who, upon observing the rapid recovery of Carthage, whose fleet and army had been rebuilt, advocated for the destruction of the Punic metropolis.

Micipsa managed the palace and the treasury in Cira, Gulussa was given command of the Numidian army and Mastanabal was appointed chief Judicial authority in the kingdom.

Settled agriculture expanded alongside traditional pastoralism, towns grew more urbanized, and trade flourished through access to former Carthaginian ports.

In their coin portraits, Masinissa and Micipsa often wore a diadem, a white ribbon tied around the head and recognized as a Hellenistic symbol of monarchy.

Jugurtha, having married the daughter of Bocchus, king of the western Mauri, amassed a large army and invaded Adherbal’s territory in 112 BC.

Consul Metellus then took command, leading an indecisive battle against Jugurtha’s forces near Theveste but later being compelled to retreat near Zama in 108 BCE.

After Gauda’s death shortly thereafter, his sons Hiempsal II and Hiarbas divided their father’s kingdom, ruling under Roman supervision.

These Numidian and Mauretanian kings, as Roman protégés, frequently traveled to Rome, where their children were often educated and held as hostages to ensure their loyalty.

Hiarbas, defeated by Pompey and besieged in Bulla Regia, was eventually forced to surrender to Gauda and was executed after enduring severe torture.

Juba, succeeding his father Hiempsal II in 50 BC, sought to take advantage of the civil war between Caesar and Pompey to free himself from Roman control.

After Caesar took Italy from the Senate’s faction, Attius Varus, a lieutenant of Pompey and leader of the senatorial army, proclaimed his general’s authority in Africa and allied with Juba.

Following Pompey’s orders, Varus blocked African ports to halt shipments of goods, leading to famine in Italy, where even slaves began to starve.

From Rome, Caesar negotiated with Publius Sittius, a Campanian adventurer commanding a small army of Italians, Gauls, Spaniards, and Berbers in Africa.

The surviving republican leaders fled to Spain, where Caesar, reinforced by Berber contingents under Bogud, defeated the Pompeian forces at Munda the following year.

Numidian riders, trained from childhood, mastered riding without saddles or bridles, using only a simple rein and wooden rod to guide their hardy, fast, and low-maintenance horses.

Numidian cavalry played pivotal roles in major conflicts, such as Hannibal’s campaigns during the Second Punic War and Scipio Africanus’ victory at Zama in 202 BC.

His contributions to the Romans in 170 BC appear to be only a fraction of the kingdom's total production, as he was upset by Rome's decision to pay for the provided wheat that year.

During his reign, urban areas worshipped Baal Hammon and other Phoenician deities, while rural communities venerated local gods and spirits.

When he welcomed Roman consul Publius Cornelius Scipio, he expressed his gratitude in a distinctly African manner, saying: “I give thanks to you, O Great Sun, and to you, other gods of the heavens.” This invocation highlights his reverence for the solar deity.

For foreign commerce, Massinissa received gold and silver coins from other nations in exchange for Numidian exports such as grain, ivory, ostrich feathers and eggs, exotic animals for circuses, and wood.

The Numidian kingdom maintained trade relations with the Iberian Peninsula, Carthage, and Rome, as well as the Greek world, including Rhodes, Athens, and Delos.

Massinissa used to provide to the population of Rhodes Toja wood and Ivory,[32] in Cirta multiple Rhodian amphorae from the 2nd century B.C were found in burial sites and one of them carries the inscription (Sodamos).

Religion Numidia took over most of the famous Carthaginian ports which were one of the most important in the mediterranean, the famous Roman orator and historian Cicero tells us that the Numidian king had a war navy to protect his trade, in one story, the fleet of Massinissa sailed to Malta and confiscated large ivory elephant pillars from the temple of Juno and returned to Numidia and gave it as a prize to Massinissa.

This funny story tells us that not only Massinissa had enough ships to perform tasks at will but also these fleets were functioning outside of African shorelines towards the central mediterranean.

Including these towns, there were altogether twenty that are known to have received at one time or another the title and status of Roman colonies; and in the 5th century, the Notitia Dignitatum enumerates no fewer than 123 sees whose bishops assembled at Carthage in 479.