[4] Contextual performance consists of four elements: persistence of enthusiasm, assistance to others, rule and proscribed procedure following, and openly defending the organizations objectives.
Extra-role behavior (ERB), first defined by Van Dyne, Cummings and Mclean-Parks (1995, as cited in Organ, Podsakoff, & MacKenzie, 2006), is another construct similar to OCB.
Whistle blowing involves the reporting of one employee by another so that unethical and or illegal practices are brought to the attention of authorities (Near & Miceli, 1987, as cited in Organ et al., 2006).
Both of these ideas contribute to ERB in the sense that their purpose is to further the good of the organization[citation needed] and that they are not included in the formal job description.
The definition of altruism remained much as it was, defined by discretionary behaviors that have the effect of helping a specific colleague with an organizationally relevant task or problem.
Examples of courteous behaviors are asking fellow employees if they would like a cup of coffee while you are getting one for yourself, making extra copies of the meeting agenda for your teammates, and giving a colleague ample notice when you alter something that will affect them.
The underlying mechanisms that lead employees to engage in these extra-role behaviors are significant for both academic study and practical application in the field of public management.
[9] An illustrative example of this theory in action is when an organization provides a conducive work environment (hygiene factor) along with regular employee recognition programs (motivator).
[17] Public sector workers often have a strong sense of duty and commitment to the greater good, which can serve as a powerful motivator for engaging in behaviors that benefit the organization and the broader community.
A culture that values teamwork, collaboration, and mutual respect fosters an environment where employees are more inclined to engage in discretionary efforts.
[22] This leadership style involves inspiring and motivating employees by creating a compelling vision of the future and empowering them to contribute meaningfully to organizational goals.
Studies have shown that leaders who exhibit transformational qualities, such as charisma, intellectual stimulation, individualized consideration, and inspirational motivation, are more likely to foster a culture of OCB within their teams.
[23] By providing a supportive and empowering environment, transformational leaders can enhance employees' intrinsic motivation, leading to increased discretionary efforts and OCB.
Other attitudinal measures, perceived fairness, organizational commitment, and leader supportiveness are found to correlate with OCB at about the same rate as satisfaction (Organ & Ryan, 1995).
In terms of personality characteristics, conscientiousness, agreeableness, and positive and negative affectivity garner the most support as antecedents of OCB (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Paine, & Bachrach, 2000).
Task characteristics such as feedback, routinization, and intrinsic satisfaction are found to be significantly related to altruism, courtesy, conscientiousness, sportsmanship, and civic virtue.
Even though task characteristics have been found to predict OCB, some debate exists as to whether this is a direct effect or a relationship mediated by job satisfaction (Todd & Kent, 2006).
Transformational leadership behaviors, including articulating a vision, providing an appropriate model, fostering the acceptance of group goals, high performance expectations, and intellectual stimulation, have significant positive relationships with Organ's dimensions of OCB.
Podsakoff and MacKenzie (1994, as cited in Organ et al., 2006) looked at an insurance agency and found that the OCBs civic virtue and sportsmanship were both significantly related to indices of sales performance.
Podsakoff, Ahearne, and MacKenzie (1997, as cited in Organ et al., 2006) examined paper mill workers and found that helping behavior was significantly related to product quality.
MacKenzie, Podsakoff, and Ahearne (1996, as cited in Organ et al., 2006) found that civic virtue and helping behavior were significantly related to the percent of team quota sales.
Walz and Niehoff (2000) examined 30 different restaurants and found that helping behavior was significantly related to operating efficiency, customer satisfaction, and quality of performance.
In addition, Nielsen et al. (2009) found that similar patterns of relationships existed for each dimension of OCB: civic virtue, sportsmanship, altruism, conscientiousness, and courtesy.
Further, TMX situations where employees are conscientious and supportive of each other's interests appear to decrease citizenship fatigue, although low-TMX seems to have nil impact.
There is a cost indicated to individuals engaging in OCB in an outcome-based system, with task performance proving much more important for increasing salary and enabling promotion.
[25] A study of 260 hospital physicians[26] found workplace happiness positively affected OCB, with diversity management perceptions mediating the relationship between them.
Diversity management enabled satisfaction with leaders, work environment and job tasks, but also enhanced feelings of respect, fair treatment, and inclusion, despite outward differences.
Citizenship pressure is a key social theoretical mechanism which encourages co-workers of presentees to engage in OCBs, in response to a change in the operating environment.
In order to develop their 16-item scale, these researchers interviewed managers in manufacturing organizations and asked them to "identify instances of helpful, but not absolutely required behavior" (Smith et al., 1983, p. 656).
Examples of items in Smith et al.'s (1983) scale include: In 1990, Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Moorman, and Fetter conducted an important study using the five dimensions of OCB: altruism, conscientiousness, sportsmanship, courtesy, and civic virtue.