[20] However, according to a study by Antoine Mahé and his colleagues, mercurial compounds can also contribute to long-term renal and neurological complications, the latter of which includes insomnia, memory loss, and irritability.

[17] Hydroquinone rapidly absorbs into the body via dermal contact; long-term usage has been found to cause nephrotoxicity and benzene-induced leukemia in the bone marrow.

[21] A study by Pascal del Giudice and Pinier Yves indicated that hydroquinone usage is strongly correlated with the development of ochronosis, cataracts, patchy depigmentation, and contact dermatitis.

[20] A 2000 study performed in Dakar, Senegal, indicated that chronic usage of skin lighteners was a risk factor for hypertension and diabetes.

[22][23] In 2020, Der Spiegel reported that in Ghana, "When You Are Light-Skinned, You Earn More", and that "[s]ome pregnant women take tablets in the hopes that it will lead their child to be born with fair skin.

[25][26] A study by Lester Davids and his colleagues indicated that nations in Africa present high rates of usage for skin bleachers.

[27] Though many products have been banned due to toxic chemical compositions, Davids found that regulating policies are often not strictly enforced.

[30] As of 2013, the global market for skin lighteners was projected to reach $19.8 billion by 2018, based on sales growth primarily in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East.

[32] According to Yetunde Mercy Olumide, advertisements for skin lighteners often present their products as stepping stones to attain greater social capital.

[34][35][18] A 2011 study found that in Tanzania, residents choose to bleach their skin to appear more European and impress peers and potential partners.

[61] Similar to early European cosmetics, white makeup was reported to cause severe health problems and physical malformations.

[61] In Japan, samurai mothers who used lead-based white paint on their faces often had children who exhibited symptoms of lead toxicity and stunted bone growth.

[61] Japanese nobility, including both men and women, often applied white lead powder to their faces prior to the Meiji restoration.

[61][72] Multiple studies find that preferences for lighter skin in India were historically linked to both the Indian caste system and centuries of outside rule by light-skinned nations.

[33] Historians indicate that the social hierarchies in the Philippines encompasses a spectrum of skin tones due to intermarriages between indigenous populations, East Asian settlers from Japan and China, and European and American colonists.

[76] Skin lightening is a common practice among women in several Middle Eastern countries, most notably Jordan[77] and Saudi Arabia.

[80] According to medieval historians, light skin was an indicator of aristocracy and higher socioeconomic class, as laborers were more frequently exposed to outdoor sunlight.

[83][81] Venetian ceruse consisted of a lead and vinegar mixture, known to cause hair loss, skin corrosion, muscle paralysis, tooth deterioration, blindness, and premature aging.

[80] European immigrants introduced recipes for cosmetic skin lighteners into the American colonies, where they eventually evolved to incorporate indigenous and West African herbal traditions.

[80] Skin whitening grew in popularity in the 1800s, as white women in the United States began to emulate the skin-whitening practices performed by those in Europe.

[88] Historians credited the increased marketing of skin whiteners to the culture of the Jim Crow era, as black Americans faced continued social and legal restrictions.

[88][72] Simultaneously, cosmetic and beauty magazines often published criticisms of black women who used skin bleachers, arguing that they appeared unnatural and fraudulent.

Some historians assert that industrialization had created indoor settings for labor, causing tanned skin to be associated more with sunbathing, travel, and leisure.

[82][80] The growth of the Black is Beautiful movement in the 1960s, combined with greater awareness of potential health hazards, also temporarily slowed the sale and popularity of skin bleachers.

[89][90] Recovered journals from women in Suriname indicated that they used vegetable mixtures to lighten their skin, which produced painful side effects.

[91][70][89] Witness accounts in colonial Jamaica reported that women practiced "flaying" and "skinning" on themselves, using astringent lotions to appear lighter.

[91] Shirley Anne Tate attributes this to the aesthetics and statuses promoted during the period of colonial rule, citing the social influence and wealth of notable Euro-Ghanaian families.

[97][91] Skin whitening practices in several other African countries increased following the onset of independence movements against European colonial rule.

[98] Several historians have suggested that the increased prevalence of skin whitening in "the Global South" is potentially tied to both precolonial notions of beauty and post-colonial hierarchies of race.

[105] In 1997, in Paris, the French police dismantled a network involved in the illegal trafficking of skin lightening products, primarily targeting Congolese migrants.