Value theory
[2] Value theory analyzes and evaluates phenomena such as well-being, utility, beauty, human life, knowledge, wisdom, freedom, love, and justice.
[4] A similar broad characterization sees value theory as a multidisciplinary area of inquiry that covers research from fields like sociology, anthropology, psychology, and economics in addition to philosophy.
[7] Even though the roots of value theory reach back to the ancient period, this area of thought was only conceived as a distinct discipline in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, when the term axiology was coined.
[b] Many evaluative terms are employed to talk about value, including good, best, great, and excellent as well as their negative counterparts, like bad and terrible.
Another subdivision pays attention to the type of benefit involved and encompasses material, economic, moral, social, political, aesthetic, and religious values.
[62] A similar view is defended by existentialists like Jean-Paul Sartre, who argued that values are human creations that endow the world with meaning.
Many are pluralistic in recognizing a diverse array of human excellences, such as knowledge, creativity, health, beauty, free agency, and moral virtues like benevolence and courage.
[80] Non-humanistic versions extend perfectionism to the natural world in general, arguing that excellence as a source of intrinsic value is not limited to the human realm.
[87] For example, philosopher Max Scheler ranks values based on how enduring and fulfilling they are into the levels of pleasure, utility, vitality, culture, and holiness.
Suggested fields where humans find meaning include exercising freedom, committing oneself to a cause, practicing altruism, engaging in positive social relationships, or pursuing personal happy.
They suggest that life is meaningless, with the consequence that there is no higher reason to continue living and that all efforts, achievements, happiness, and suffering are ultimately pointless.
Consequently, they observe how people decide and act, seeking to infer the underlying value attitudes responsible for picking one course of action rather than another.
[122] Economics is a social science studying how goods and services are produced, distributed, and consumed, both from the perspective of individual agents and societal systems.
They use the notion of economic value and related evaluative concepts to understand decision-making processes, resource allocation, and the impact of policies.
[131] In their analyses and explanations of these phenomena, some sociologists use the concept of values to understand issues like social cohesion and conflict, the norms and practices people follow, and collective action.
Anthropologist Louis Dumont followed this idea, suggesting that the cultural meaning systems in distinct societies differ in their value priorities.
Collectivism gives priority to group-related values, like cooperation, conformity, and foregoing personal advantages for the sake of collective benefits.
[140] As the study of mental phenomena and behavior, psychology contrasts with sociology and anthropology by focusing more on the perspective of individuals than the broader social and cultural contexts.
[144] An early theory, formulated by psychologists Philip E. Vernon and Gordon Allport, understands personality as a collection of aspects unified by a coherent value system.
He understood eudaimonia as a form of happiness or flourishing achieved through the exercise of virtues in accordance with reason, leading to the full realization of human potential.
[154] Epicurus (c. 341–271 BCE) proposed a nuanced egoistic hedonism, stating that personal pleasure is the greatest good while recommending moderation to avoid the negative effects of excessive desires and anxiety about the future.
[161] A similar outlook is found in ancient Buddhist philosophy, starting between the sixth and the fifth centuries BCE, where the cessation of suffering through the attainment of Nirvana is considered the ultimate goal.
[162] In ancient China, Confucius (c. 551–479 BCE)[163] explored the role of self-cultivation in leading a virtuous life, viewing general benevolence towards humanity as the supreme virtue.
[164] In comparing the highest virtue to water, Laozi (6th century BCE)[t] emphasized the importance of living in harmony with the natural order of the universe.
[168] Drawing on Aristotelianism, Christian philosopher Thomas Aquinas (1224–1274 CE)[169] said that communion with the divine, achieved through a beatific vision of God, is the highest end of humans.
[170] In Arabic–Persian philosophy, al-Farabi (c. 878–950 CE)[171] asserted that the supreme form of human perfection is an intellectual happiness, reachable in the afterlife by developing the intellect to its fullest potential.
[174] In Indian philosophy, Adi Shankara (c. 700–750 CE)[175] taught that liberation, the highest human end, is reached by realizing that the self is the same as ultimate reality encompassing all of existence.
[176] In Chinese thought, the early neo-Confucian philosopher Han Yu (768–824) identified the sage as an ideal role model who, through self-cultivation, achieves personal integrity expressed in harmony between theory and action in daily life.
[211] In continental philosophy, Franz Brentano (1838–1917)[212] formulated an early version of the fitting-attitude theory of value, saying that a thing is good if it is fitting to have a positive attitude towards it, such as love.
[221] Existentialist philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980)[222] said that values do not exist by themselves but are actively created, emphasizing the role of human freedom, responsibility, and authenticity in the process.
