[3] This may be an example of convergent evolution, which happens when distantly related species independently evolve similar solutions to the same problems.

For example, fish, penguins and dolphins have each separately evolved flippers as solution to the problem of moving through the water.

[6][7] As a result of this physical and social evolution, many dogs readily respond to social cues common to humans,[8][9][10][11] quickly learn the meaning of words,[12] show cognitive bias[13] and exhibit emotions that seem to reflect those of humans.

[14] Research suggests that domestic dogs may have lost some of their original cognitive abilities once they joined humans.

Another study indicated that after being trained to solve a simple manipulation task, dogs that are faced with an unsolvable version of the same problem look at a nearby human, while socialized wolves do not.

It included measurements of short-term memory, agility, and ability to solve problems such as detouring to a goal.

Perception refers to mental processes through which incoming sensory information is organized and interpreted in order to represent and understand the environment.

This ability is not present at birth, and developmental psychologist Jean Piaget described six stages in the development of object permanence in human infants.

At this stage they can track "successive visible displacement" in which the experimenter moves the object behind multiple screens before leaving it behind the last one.

[26] Dogs can pass the "sniff test" suggesting potential self-awareness in the olfactory sense, and also show awareness of the size and movement of their bodies.

If the partner was distracted, the dog instead engaged in attention-getting behavior before sending a play signal.

[29] Puppies learn behaviors quickly by following examples set by experienced dogs.

In social groups with a clear hierarchy, dominant individuals are the more influential demonstrators and the knowledge transfer tends to be unidirectional, from higher rank to lower.

Dogs and wolves have also been shown to follow more complex pointing made with body parts other than the human arm and hand (e.g. elbow, knee, foot).

[40] Dogs have demonstrated episodic-like memory by recalling past events that included the complex actions of humans.

[42] A 2018 study on canine cognitive abilities found that various animals, including pigs, pigeons and chimpanzees, are able to remember the what, where and when of an event, which dogs cannot do.

[45] In humans, "fast mapping" is the ability to form quick and rough hypotheses about the meaning of a new word after only a single exposure.

[47] An fMRI study found that the dog brain distinguished, without training, a familiar from an unfamiliar language.

For example, in his 1996 book Good Natured, ethologist Frans de Waal discusses an experiment on guilt and reprimands conducted on a female Siberian Husky.

De Waal concludes that the dog did not display true guilt as humans understand it, but rather simply the anticipation of reprimand.

[52] On the other hand, when dogs' separation anxiety is treated with medications and behavior therapy, their cognitive bias becomes less negative than before treatment.

[54] It is therefore suggested that the cognitive bias test can be used to monitor positive emotional states and therefore welfare in dogs.

[59][60] Eclipse, a black labrador in Seattle, would occasionally ride the bus ahead of its owner when eager to get to the dog park.

[61] Ratty, a Jack Russell terrier in Yorkshire, England, traveled 5 mi (8.0 km) by bus to be fed at two pubs.

[63] Another study indicated that after undergoing training to solve a simple manipulation task, dogs faced with an unsolvable version of the same problem look at the human, whereas socialized wolves do not.

[4][65] Sex-specific dynamics are an important contributor to individual differences in cognitive performance of pet dogs in repeated problem-solving tasks.