Eumenes

The Greek biographer and essayist Plutarch chose Eumenes as the focus of one of his biographies in Parallel Lives, where he was paired with Quintus Sertorius, the rebel Roman general who led a revolt against Rome in the 70s BC.

[10] Despite the position of secretary being looked down on by Macedonians, Eumenes held significant authority in the office, as he oversaw all written communications and maintained a close relationship with the king.

[31] The officers eventually subdued Meleager and regained control over Babylon by announcing a joint kingship between Philip III Arrhidaeus and, when he was born, Alexander IV.

[42] Eumenes refused, fearing Antipater would murder him if he returned, and felt "[unwilling] to abandon his standing with Perdiccas for a mad and dangerous dash to Macedonia".

[59][60] Eumenes marched to the Hellespont, following orders to defend it,[61][60] and spoke to Cleopatra again at Sardis, who this time refused to marry Perdiccas, uncertain of who would win in the war to come.

[62] Antigonus, who sailed over with a fleet and landed in western Asia Minor, succeeded in winning over many satraps and cities (Asander of Caria, Menander of Lydia, among others).

[63][62] Eumenes then retreated inland as Cleitus the White defected with his fleet (allowing Craterus and Antipater to cross), and Perdiccas, hearing of these disasters, ordered Neoptolemus and Alcetas to obey him.

[71] Eumenes concealed Craterus' name from his soldiers, knowing his popularity would sway their loyalty, instead claiming the Asian warlord "Pigres" had joined Neoptolemus and was marching against them.

[74][69] Eumenes, leading the left flank, killed Neoptolemus in single combat, then induced the enemy infantry to surrender, winning a "stunning victory".

[80] After the murder of Perdiccas in Egypt, the Macedonian generals condemned Eumenes (and the other Perdiccans) to death at the Conference at Triparadisus, with Antipater assigning Antigonus as his chief executioner.

[84][85] Eumenes was now in "far worse circumstances than he had been at Alexander's death" as he was an outlaw and being actively hunted, but he had an experienced, loyal army and prepared for the coming conflict with Antigonus.

[89] Eumenes further consolidated loyalty by arguing to his men that the joint kings[90] had been taken by traitors to the Macedonian throne and that, in effect, he and his army were still loyalists to the Argead house.

[93] To further guarantee the loyalty of subordinates, Eumenes also sold off the estates of Phrygia to them and provided military support to claim the purchased land from the, obviously, unwilling and disgruntled Phrygian property owners.

[100] A conference was held with the Perdiccan leaders in Celaenae: Eumenes argued that Antipater and Antigonus were unpopular, and that a united offensive would not only prove successful but also attract many deserters.

Determined to follow tradition, Plutarch reports that Eumenes made the unexpected move of returning to the battlefield so that he could construct a proper funeral pyre for the dead.

[119][120] In the late spring of 319 BC, Eumenes disbanded his army, save for a small, crack force of 600 men and holed up in Nora, a strong and well-supplied fortress on the border between Cappadocia and Lycaonia.

[147][146][148] Polyperchon said Eumenes could march to Macedonia and become guardian of the kings, or stay in Asia with supreme command over the region and remain "a protector of royalty" abroad.

[150][146] Eumenes decided to accept Polyperchon's offer,[149] either out of a wish to protect the Argead royalty and Olympias, because of his own ambition and disinclination to be subordinate to another, or a combination of both factors.

[164][165] Antigonus attempted this as well and successfully convinced Teutamus (one of two commanders of the Silver Shields) but Antigenes, the other, stayed loyal to Eumenes, ironically because of his foreign heritage.

[168] In the winter of 318/317 BC, Eumenes left Cilicia and marched into Syria and Phoenicia, and began to raise a naval force on behalf of Polyperchon to sail to the Aegean Sea.

[204][205] Effectively unable to cross with Eumenes' presence and victory, Antigonus abandoned the idea and turned back northward, moving up into Media and Badace, then to Ecbatana through a damaging forced march to rest his men.

Supposedly from the satrap of Armenia Orontes,[216] the letter said that Olympias and Alexander IV had conquered Macedon, killed Cassander, and that Polyperchon was en route to Asia with a great army.

[225] He slightly recovered, but was compelled to give over supreme command to Peucestas and Antigenes to lead the army north while Eumenes himself convalesced, being carried in a litter.

[260][261] Eumenes, however, successfully persuaded the satraps to remain by pointing out their troops would be well-rested while Antigonus' would be tired from traversing the desert, and told them of a plan which would give them enough time to assemble the whole army.

[271] Eumenes' strategy focused on his phalanx and the Silver Shields; he ordered Philip (satrap of Bactria, leading the weaker right Eumenid flank), one of his loyal supporters, not to engage the enemy.

[292] The satraps wished to retreat, but Eumenes wanted to battle again the next day, citing the fact that the cavalry were not greatly diminished and the Silver Shields' victory in the centre.

[282] Eumenes had reason to be optimistic about another engagement and may have been successful in persuading the army,[293][294] but the Silver Shields themselves, though they blamed Peucestas for the inconclusive result of the battle, wished to get their baggage and families back and refused both options.

[304][305] Eumenes is broadly seen as an excellent commander,[307] skilled in both tactics and strategy and Antigonus' only military equal,[308] who did his utmost to maintain the unity of Alexander's empire in Asia.

[310][311] Eumenes' efforts were repeatedly frustrated by issues of divided command and disloyal subordinates: his "most serious problem" which were handicaps many of his enemies, notably Antigonus, did not have to struggle with.

[317] Eumenes has been seen as a tragic figure, a man who seemingly tried to do the right thing but was overcome by a more ruthless enemy and the treachery of his own soldiers; in essence, that he failed not due to any lack of ability, but from "ill luck, bad alliances, and one very capable opponent".

Map of the Thracian Chersonese. Cardia, Eumenes' birthplace, is visible in the top right of the image.
Map of Alexander's Empire, divided as per the Partition of Babylon in 323 BC according to the historian Diodorus Siculus . Eumenes of Cardia's satrapies are visible on the top left, below the Black Sea .
Map of Anatolia, also called Asia Minor, and its regions.
The single combat between Eumenes of Cardia and Neoptolemus , 1878 engraving. Eumenes and Neoptolemus are said to have shared a "most violent hatred" with one another. [ 70 ]
Coin of Philip III Arrhidaius struck under Perdiccas in Babylon , circa 323-320 BC. Though Eumenes would claim to fight for the joint kings, it is not probable he ever saw them in person after 321 BC.
Print made in the late 17th century, depicting Eumenes, by M. Burg.
The Taurus Mountains in modern Turkey. Nora was located, in ancient times, at the foot of one of these mountains.
Medallion depicting Olympias, mother of Alexander the Great. Eumenes was an old and trusted friend of Olympias. [ 143 ]
Map of the Achaemenid Persian Empire which Alexander the Great conquered. The title of "Upper Satrapies" is typically applied to the lands east of Media (centre of the image) and the Zagros Mountains .
The modern Dez river in Iran , called the Coprates in ancient times. Too deep and fast moving to be forded , Antigonus' only option to cross it was to utilize boats. [ 195 ]
Coin depicting Alexander the Great fighting Porus , atop a war elephant . The Battle of Paraitakene, with over 70,000 soldiers and 200 elephants total, was the first battle in European history with war elephants on both sides. [ 239 ]
Example of the rocky terrain in Nain . Antigonus, after Paraitakene, rested his troops in a similar environment around the modern city of Nain. [ 258 ]
Image depicting a Macedonian phalanx . A skilled phalanx, like the Silver Shields, could adopt a square formation, pointing their spears ( sarissae ) outward to become impervious to a cavalry charge. [ 282 ]
Eumenes and Roxana by Alessandro Leone Varotari , c. 17th century. The infant pictured is Alexander the Great's son, Alexander IV . Eumenes' loyalty to the Macedonian royal family of Alexander the Great is a common theme of ancient sources that discuss him. [ 306 ]