Health survival paradox
The male-female health survival paradox has been most reliably reported in literature and documented as far back as the 18th century in European historical records.
[4] While women were documented to outlive men in Europe,[2][4] data from 1887 through 1930 showed that females between ages 5 and 25 in Massachusetts disproportionately faced mortality due to infectious diseases.
[5] With improvements in infectious disease prevention, treatment, and eradication of Smallpox around the 1970s, mortality rates declined in both sexes.
[2] In other words, women and men differ in biological, behavioral, and social factors which causes the male-female health survival paradox.
[2] Biopsychosocial factors that have been hypothesized to cause this paradox include genetics, hormone differences, immunological differences, reproduction, chronic diseases, disability, physiological reserve, risk-related activities, illness perception, health reporting behavior, health care utilization, gender roles, and social assets and deficits.
[2] Different rates of alcohol and tobacco usage by men and women contribute to the paradox in developed countries.
However, due to conflict of emerging SUDs findings, future studies are needed to confirm whether biological and environmental constituents impact gender/sex differences on substance-use disorder.
[10][6][11] However, a recent review showed mixed findings on smoking behavior, and that bio-psycho-social factors may be more impactful than gender differences.
In addition, a higher proportion of men use alternative tobacco options to replace cigarettes, and gender-based comparisons may be skewed from failing to stratify randomization in treatment groups.
[6] Most countries report higher rates of chronic kidney disease (CKD) in women compared to men.
[23] However, the difference in CKD rates may be due to the longer life expectancy of women, as kidney function declines with age.
[24] Proposed explanations for the paradox range from genetic, hormonal, and physiological processes unique to females and males.
However, this is a continued study that may be due to biological factors—such as immune response, inflammation, pharmacokinetics, or hormones—or from social factors—such as women tending to have more ultraviolet protection and frequent medical visits.
Consequently, excess calcium deposits in soft tissues, causing stiffening of arteries and higher blood pressure, leading to cardiovascular disease.
[32] Another possible explanation of the paradox is a social expectation of the female sex role, making women more willing to seek medical help sooner.
At the time, aseptic technique was not widely practiced, including during child delivery, abortions, and associated surgical procedures.
In the early 1930s, hospitals in the United States began establishing rigorous physician qualification and practice guidelines to ensure sufficiently trained obstetricians, application of aseptic technique, and safe and effective deliveries.
[34] A study conducted in the United States (US) consisting of 9,000 participants determined that women have a 1.5 times greater risk of experiencing a mood disorder compared to men.
[35] Additionally, a 2006 study examining mental health in New Zealand found that lifetime rates for major depression are higher in women (20.3%) compared to men (11.4%).
[42] In another study focused on Eurasian Blackbirds found lower survival in females due to more passive phenotypes that increased predation susceptibility.
