It is also naturalized in the southeastern United States (Florida, Texas, Louisiana, and South Carolina), and much of Europe, sub-Saharan Africa, Southeast Asia, and Oceania.

[4]: 312 [5][page needed] Canna indica is a perennial growing to between 0.5 and 2.5 metres (1+1⁄2 and 8 feet), depending on the variety.

[6][7][8][9] It forms branched rhizomes 60 centimetres (24 inches) long[10] that are divided into bulbous segments and covered in two lines by pale green or purple flaky leaves.

The fruits are ellipsoid capsules to globose, warty, 1.5 to 3 cm long, chestnut coloured, with a large amount of black and very hard seeds.

According to the BBC, "The story goes that during the Indian Mutiny of the 19th century, soldiers used the seeds of a Canna indica when they ran out of bullets.

"[14] In the last three decades of the 20th century, Canna species have been categorised by two different taxonomists, Paulus Johannes Maria Maas from the Netherlands and Nobuyuki Tanaka from Japan.

orientalis (Roscoe), William Aiton recognizes 2 varieties of Canna indica var.

rubra, and Eduard August von Regel recognizes one variety of Canna indica var.

[20] The Japanese beetle (Popillia japonica) is another leaf ragging pest with mainly small consequences for Canna plants.

Although this pest has not been causing severe damages yet, it can particularly affect plants grown in greenhouses and can be combatted with parasitical wasps.

The place of the first domestication may have been the northern Andes, as may be true of other similar root crops such as Calathea allouia and M. arundinacea.

Archaeological evidence has been found of the cultivation of achira in 3000 BCE by people of the Las Vegas culture of coastal Ecuador.

As the Las Vegas region is arid and semiarid, achira was not likely a native plant, but imported from more humid climates.

[33] The optimal substrate consists of a deep, rich and well-drained soil in a sunny place with a pH between 5.5 and 7.5.

Because Canna indica grows quite tall, it should be cultivated at locations with relatively low wind speed to prevent bending over.

Before flowering, the second tillage can be combined with the second fertilizer application to promote the growth of underground stems and roots.

Applying fertilizer evenly on both sides of the roots helps them to absorb water and grow uniformly.

[36] Fast growing weeds can have a negative impact on C. indica, especially before the fourth leaf appears.

C. indica is suitable as an emergency crop in case of shortfalls due to its long durability in the ground.

[34] Harvesting is done manually by pulling out the crop with a shovel or another digging tool, shaking off the soil, and then cutting the stems to separate the rhizomes.

[34][38] In certain locations, the yield of Canna indica can be higher than other starchy crops like cassava and arrowroot.

[38][39] The following steps of traditional starch production in Colombia show that the process is dependent on a significant supply of fresh water.

[34][39] In rural areas in Colombia, the recently harvested rhizomes are packed up in sacks and transported to the processing site.

[45] The Spanish took notice of achira in 1549 when it was mentioned as one of four root crops being grown for food by the people of the Chuquimayo valley (Jaén province) of Peru.

The other three were sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), cassava (Manihot esculenta), and racacha (Arracacia xanthorrhiza).

[46] In modern times, achira is rarely grown for food, although in the 1960s it was still an important crop in Paruro Province on the upper Apurimac River near Cusco.

There, at elevations of up to 2,600 metres (8,500 ft), achira is cultivated and harvested, especially to be eaten during the Festival of Corpus Christi in May or June.

From the late 1950s to the early 1960s, China suffered from a severe food shortage, known as the Great Chinese Famine.

The research in China mainly focuses on processing methods, and additionally, there are few studies on varieties and cultivation techniques.

[49] In China, Canna indica starch and polyethylene are used as raw materials to produce biodegradable plastics.