Changes in the Polyphosphoinositide metabolism and changes in Ca2+ level of the cell may also play an important role.
A number of actin-binding and organizing proteins localize to membrane ruffles and potentially target to transducing molecules.
Membrane ruffling is a characteristic feature of many actively migrating cells.
The ruffling of membranes is thought to be controlled by a group of enzymes known as Rho GTPases, specifically RhoA, Rac1 and cdc42.
Such toxins include EspT, Map, and SopE, which mimic RhoGEF and activate endogenous Rho GTPases to manipulate actin polymerisation in the infected cell.