Native American self-determination
The IRA enabled the restoration of tribal governments but Congress made many changes in response to outcries from lobbyists and the bill fell short of the policy of "Indian self-determination without termination.
American Indians had successfully kept their cultures and religions alive, and the government recognized that the goal of assimilation was wrong.
[4] This act enabled the federal government to make direct contracts with the Indian tribes just as it does with the states, for implementation of programs and distribution of funds.
Rather than the BIA administering programs directly, the government would contract with tribes to manage health care, for instance, or educational benefits.
Another campaign occurred in the Pacific Northwest as Billy Frank, Jr. and Hank Adams fought for native treaty fishing rights.
The result was a Native American force which fought for change throughout a wide variety of interconnected social spheres.
Sadly, he was murdered by a white supremacist while volunteering at summer camp in Northern California for Native youth.
For decades since the late 19th century, Native Americans were forced to send their children to boarding schools where they were made to speak and write in English only, and to learn the majority culture and Christian religion.
The project was called the Rough Rock Demonstration School, and it was to administered solely by the Navajo Indians (without BIA oversight.)
Paul Bernal (also known as Sherry Beni) fought for the Taos Pueblo tribe of New Mexico, who wanted to reclaim their sacred religious site, Blue Lake.
Ada Deer (along with such people as Lucy Covington) is one of the early examples of self-determination in tribal members; her efforts helped restore all the terminated lands back to the Menominee tribe.
Through NARF, Echohawk has gained government recognition of tribal sovereignty and participated in drafting the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act signed into law by President George H. W. Bush in 1990.
[9] Several Native American organizations provided an immense amount of support that either helped set the precedent for the self-determination movement or further strengthen the policy.
In 1944, the National Congress of American Indians (NCAI) was founded "in response to termination and assimilation policies that the United States forced upon the tribal governments in contradiction of their treaty rights and status as sovereigns.
[10] "Recognizing the threat posed by termination, [NCAI] fought to maintain Indians' legal rights and cultural identity.
"Whether they settled in Indian country or in the cities, these veterans realized expectations and bred a much-needed impatience and assertiveness."
According to Helen Peterson, later executive director of NCAI, "World War Two revived the Indians' capacity to act on their own behalf.
[15] The independence gained by tribes from dealing with the Office of Economic Opportunity helped change the dynamic of Indian affairs in relation to the federal government.
"[16] NARF's legal, policy, and public education work is concentrated in five key areas: preservation of tribes; protection of tribal natural resources; promotion of Native American human rights; accountability of governments to Native Americans; and development of Indian law and educating the public about Indian rights, laws, and issues.
"NARF focuses on applying existing laws and treaties to guarantee that national and state governments live up to their legal obligations [and] … works with religious, civil rights, and other Native American organizations to shape the laws that will help assure the civil and religious rights of all Native Americans.
NARF has trained many young attorneys, both Indians and non-Indians, who intend to specialize in Native American legal issues.
One of the earliest of such organizations was the Determination of Rights and Unity for Menominee Shareholders (DRUMS) – a citizens' group founded in 1970.
Minnesota Governor Patrick Lucey met with DRUMS leaders and discussed prevalent issues in the Menominee community.
Although DRUMS set its sights on improving the status of the local Menominee people, it was a big step toward the nationwide self-determination movement.
[20] The success of DRUMS let other Indians know that they too could make an impact, if only on a local level, and motivated other tribes to fight for their rights.
The new policy of the Office of Economic Opportunity, which sought to directly involve the recipients of its aid, provided further impetus for self-determination in education.
As tribes began to have more control over their own affairs and have more infrastructure entitled to them, they were able to be in much more command of their space, make more money, which led to power and progress.
