Pack (canine)
[1] Gray wolves (Canis lupus) tend to live in packs that consist of adult parents and their offspring of the last two or three years.
[8] Furthermore, researchers noted that younger, more subordinate wolves appear to have less attachment to their pack compared to their higher-ranking compatriots.
[8] Cooperation is essential for tasks such as hunting and protecting the young, though the level of attachment present in the pack is not necessarily equal.
[13] Care and protection of the young are shared, and knowledge can be passed down through generations, creating a unique culture within each group[10] The pack is typically a nuclear family unit.
Genetic variability can become limited within such an interrelated group, and so conditions for gene flow must exist.
[10] A pack may accept another wolf into their group if it is a distant relative,[14] if reproduction rates are low due to the loss or infertility of an alpha, or if their numbers are significantly reduced.
[16][failed verification] Characterisation of wolves into dominance hierarchies of alpha, beta, and omega was based on behavioural studies of unrelated wolves in captivity, and this assemblage largely does not apply to natural wolf packs, which are familial units.
Lone wolves usually result from sexually mature offspring leaving their parental pack, though may also occur if harassed subordinates chose to disperse.
In times of prey scarcity, low-ranking wolves may choose to go off on their own if the pack cannot supply sufficient food.
[15] It was previously believed to be common for an aging or sick alpha to be replaced by one of their offspring,[16] but more recent studies have shown this incestuous behaviour to be very rare.
[19][better source needed] The fundamental purpose of the pack is the successful production of offspring, and so raising the litter is a collaborative venture – all members contribute to their development.
[10] In times of scarcity, the breeding pair will often prioritise the care of the pups and preferentially feed the youngest wolves first.
[14] Despite this committed involvement, pup mortality is high, with researchers citing that only roughly 30% survive their first year of life.
Pups learn something from each member of the pack and attain the vital social skills required to create powerful bonds upon which the wolf's societal structure relies.
[14] Larger or less-nuclear packs may operate differently and possess more complex and flexible social structures.
The one use we may still want to reserve for alpha is in the relatively few large wolf packs comprised of multiple litters.
[29] Most leading veterinary and animal behaviour associations and most contemporary trainers would agree to advocate the use of rewards to teach commands and encourage good communication between owners and their pets.
[30] Some canine behaviourists suggest that kind, efficient training uses games to teach commands which can be utilised to benefit the owner's everyday life.
