History of Ukraine

From the earliest stone tools to evidence of complex social structures and artistic traditions, Ukraine offers a valuable lens into the evolution and adaptation of early humans over hundreds of thousands of years.

While the Scythians employed their signature scorched-earth and guerrilla tactics to evade outright defeat, the campaign resulted in the Persian domination of several Thracian peoples and regions along the Black Sea’s northern coast.

These territories, encompassing parts of modern-day Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, and southern Russia, were incorporated into the vast Achaemenid sphere of influence, though direct control remained tenuous.

Beginning in the 7th or 6th century BC during the Archaic period, Greek settlers established colonies along the northern Black Sea coast, including Crimea and parts of modern Ukraine.

The socio-economic structure of Kievan Rus' was similar to that of other European states of the period, characterized by a natural economy, communal land ownership, and reliance on slash-and-burn agriculture, and animal husbandry.

He appointed governors and entrusted his sons with ruling major cities, also minted his own gold (Zolotnik) and silver (Serebryanik) coins, and granted borderlands to loyal vassals in exchange for military defense.

To protect the realm, Vladimir oversaw the construction of an extensive system of defensive fortifications, known as the Serpent's Walls, which stretched for 1,000 kilometers, safeguarding Kievan Rus' from external threats.

Although Lev managed to preserve the state's territorial integrity, the kingdom's power gradually eroded under the relentless pressure from the Mongol Golden Horde and ongoing internal political challenges.

During his rule, Yuriy II struggled to balance the competing interests of Poland, Lithuania, and the Mongol Golden Horde, while also introducing pro-Catholic policies that alienated the local nobility.

This rise to power marked a significant shift in the region, as the Crimean Khanate not only played a key military and political role but also became a vital player in the economy of the Black Sea and beyond.

The union was driven by the need to counter external threats, primarily the growing aggression of Tsardom of Moscow and persistent raids by the Teutonic Order, prompting both states to consolidate their resources and strengthen their defenses.

The rebellion not only destabilized one of Europe’s most prominent states at the time but also triggered a broader period of chaos in the region, known in Ukrainian history as the "Ruin", while in Polish historiography it is referred to as "the Deluge".

The state found itself entangled in a web of diplomatic and military conflicts involving major regional powers, including the Ottoman Empire, the Commonwealth, the Crimean Khanate, and the Tsardom of Moscow.

Moreover, the agreement failed to stabilize the region, as ongoing conflicts, including Russian military campaigns and internal unrest, plunged the Hetmanate into over a decade of turmoil, leaving its aspirations for autonomy unfulfilled.

This administrative body, composed largely of imperial officials, was tasked with supervising the Hetmanate’s governance, effectively curtailing Skoropadsky’s authority and undermining traditional Cossack institutions.

The abolition not only dismantled the Hetmanate’s unique political and military institutions but also signified the culmination of a broader imperial strategy to suppress regional autonomy in favor of centralized governance.

The resulting discontent gave rise to a series of Haidamak uprisings, in which bands of rebels attacked and looted towns, targeting the estates of nobles, clergy, and Jewish populations.

Skoropadskyi, a former officer in the Russian Imperial Army, assumed the title of Hetman of all Ukraine, aiming to create a strong, centralized state with close ties to the German Empire and Austria-Hungary.

Both entities were preoccupied with their respective military challenges: the UPR was engaged in a desperate struggle against advancing Bolshevik forces, while the WUPR was embroiled in a conflict with Polish troops over territorial claims in Eastern Galicia.

[185] In 1932-33, Holodomor, derived from the Ukrainian words for "hunger" (holod) and "extermination" (moryty), was a man-made famine that resulted from the Soviet government's grain requisition policies and punitive measures against those who resisted collectivization.

[207][208] After World War II, amendments to the Constitution of the Ukrainian SSR were accepted, which allowed it to act as a separate subject of international law in some cases and to a certain extent, remaining a part of the Soviet Union at the same time.

Glasnost opened the door for greater freedom of expression, allowing Ukrainian intellectuals, activists, and dissidents to publicly address long-suppressed issues such as Russification, environmental degradation, and historical atrocities like the Holodomor.

However, his second term was plagued by widespread controversies, including allegations of authoritarianism, pervasive corruption scandals, curtailment of media freedoms, and large-scale public protests that challenged his leadership and legitimacy.

In this election, Yushchenko, as the leading opposition candidate, challenged Viktor Yanukovych, Kuchma’s chosen successor, in a contest that would shape Ukraine’s political trajectory for years to come.

[283][284] In the 2012 parliamentary elections, the Party of Regions further strengthened its grip on power, securing the largest number of seats despite widespread allegations of vote-rigging, administrative pressure, and misuse of state resources.

[296] On 19 May 2018, Poroshenko signed a Decree which put into effect the decision of the National Security and Defense Council on the final termination of Ukraine's participation in the statutory bodies of the Commonwealth of Independent States.

Early parliamentary elections on 21 July allowed the newly formed pro-presidential Servant of the People party to win an absolute majority of seats for the first time in the history of independent Ukraine (248).

Although official results of a referendum on Crimean reunification with Russia were reported as showing a large majority in favor of the proposition, the vote was organized under Russian military occupation and was denounced by the European Union and the United States as illegal.

[336] On the eve of the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, the country was the poorest in Europe,[337] a handicap whose cause was attributed to high corruption levels[338] and the slow pace of economic liberalization and institutional reform.

The politics of identity (which includes the production of history textbooks and the authorization of commemorative practices) has remained fragmented and tailored to reflect the ideological anxieties and concerns of individual regions of Ukraine.