[3] In 1683, Portuguese militia tried to take control of the gold trade in the interior of Africa by invading the Rozvi empire.

However, the Rozvi, armed with their traditional spears and shields, repelled these attacks and maintained control of the gold mines, until their empire collapsed.

They drove the Portuguese off the central plateau, and the Europeans retained only a nominal presence at one of the fair-towns in the eastern highlands.

Kingship followed a male line and the king was the highest political, religious, military, economic, judicial and social authority, as well as the main distributor of land.

The King was helped to rule by an advisory council made of state officials appointed by him; this consisted of his most senior wives, the crown prince, the tumbare (regent), religious leaders, military commanders and vassal chiefs.

Drought, invading Dutch settlers and the catastrophic aftermath of the Mfecane resulted in waves of Nguni tribes moving north.

Another wave of attacks followed from the group led by the Swazi Queen Nyamazanana, resulting in the capture of the capital Manyanga and the murder of the Rozvi Mambo Chirisamhuru.

Taking a diplomatic approach, he sent word to Tohwechipi asking him to return home and submit to him, crowning him King of the Shona.

[8] The economic power of the Rozvi empire was based on cattle herding, farming, and gold mining.

Internal and external trade were important, especially with Arab traders, exchanging ivory, copper and gold for guns, salt, beads and sea shells.

[citation needed] Rozvi kings revived the tradition of stone building and constructed impressive cities, now known as 'zimbabwes', throughout the southwest.