[2] Several psychologists, including Viktor Frankl,[3] Abraham Maslow,[4] and Pamela G. Reed[5] have made contributions to the theory of self-transcendence.
Viktor Frankl wrote, "The essentially self-transcendent quality of human existence renders man a being reaching out beyond himself.
"[9] According to Reed, self-transcendence is: the capacity to expand self-boundaries intrapersonally (toward greater awareness of one's philosophy, values, and dreams), interpersonally (to relate to others' and one's environment), temporally (to integrate one's past and future in a way that has meaning for the present), and transpersonally (to connect with dimensions beyond the typically discernible world).
[note 1] Existential well-being was most strongly related to the Temperament and Character Inventory traits of high self-directedness and low harm avoidance.
While humanistic and transpersonal theories of psychology maintain that spirituality is an essential component of health and well-being, some psychologists have instead correlated self-transcendence with various aspects of mental illness.
For instance, people with schizophrenia tend to have poorer self-rated quality of life compared to the general population.
[18] Instead, he notes, a survey of 1200 studies and 400 reviews concludes: ‘In the majority of studies, religious involvement is correlated with well-being, happiness and life satisfaction; hope and optimism; purpose and meaning in life; higher self-esteem; better adaptation to bereavement; greater social support and less loneliness; lower rates of depression and faster recovery from depression; lower rates of suicide and fewer positive attitudes towards suicide; less anxiety; less psychosis and fewer psychotic tendencies; lower rates of alcohol and drug use and abuse; less delinquency and criminal activity; greater marital stability and satisfaction.