Crux simplex

[3] Latin crux meant generically "a tree, frame, or other wooden instruments of execution, on which criminals were impaled or hanged" and in particular "a cross".

The museum at Ein Kerem, Israel known as the World of the Bible Garden has among its exhibits an olive tree arranged as for a crucifixion.

[12] In 1594, Lipsius gave as his opinion that from the crux simplex ad affixionem the cross as generally pictured today was developed.

For it would seem that there were more kinds of death than one by the cross; this being sometimes accomplished by transfixing the criminal with a pole, which was run through his back and spine, and came out at his mouth (adactum per medium hominem, qui per os emergat, stipitem)".

[13] According to Joseph Zias, Curator of Archaeology/Anthropology for the Israel Antiquities Authority from 1972 to 1997, the quickest and most efficient manner of execution "would be to simply tie the victim to the tree or cross with his hands suspended directly over his head.

"[14] The addition of a crossbeam prolonged the victim's suffering beyond what would be the time of dying if suspended with hands directly above his head as in the Justus Lipsius drawing.

Also according to Dr. Frederick Zugibe, the vertical crucifixion style would precipitate suffocation in a short time, from hours to even minutes, depending on whether you had any support on your feet to be able to sit up and breathe.

[16] In 1904, Paul Wilhelm Schmidt wrote: "Anything other than a simple hanging is ruled out by the method of mass executions that was frequently followed: 2000 at a time by Varus (Ant.

[17] Ninety years later, Raymond E. Brown commented: "Occasionally just an upright stake was used, and the condemned's hands were raised vertically and nailed extended above his head.

In his Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium Seneca mentions the adactum per medium hominem qui per os emergat stipitem (the stake which they drive straight through a man until it protrudes from his throat);[20] and in his De Consolatione ad Marciam he says that alii per obscena stipitem egerunt (some force a stick upward through his groin).