Hydrolysis

In this case the net result is a relative excess of hydroxide ions, yielding a basic solution.

Their hydrolysis occurs when the nucleophile (a nucleus-seeking agent, e.g., water or hydroxyl ion) attacks the carbon of the carbonyl group of the ester or amide.

In addition, in living systems, most biochemical reactions (including ATP hydrolysis) take place during the catalysis of enzymes.

As an example, one may consider proteases (enzymes that aid digestion by causing hydrolysis of peptide bonds in proteins).

Their action is stereo-selective: Only proteins with a certain tertiary structure are targeted as some kind of orienting force is needed to place the amide group in the proper position for catalysis.

This specificity preserves the integrity of other proteins such as hormones, and therefore the biological system continues to function normally.

One of the two oxygen groups on the carboxylic acid are derived from a water molecule and the amine (or ammonia) gains the hydrogen ion.

For this reason nylon products fail by fracturing when exposed to small amounts of acidic water.

The energy derived from the oxidation of nutrients is not used directly but, by means of a complex and long sequence of reactions, it is channeled into a special energy-storage molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

The ATP molecule contains pyrophosphate linkages (bonds formed when two phosphate units are combined) that release energy when needed.

ATP can undergo hydrolysis in two ways: Firstly, the removal of terminal phosphate to form adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate, with the reaction: Secondly, the removal of a terminal diphosphate to yield adenosine monophosphate (AMP) and pyrophosphate.

This results in biosynthesis reactions, which usually occur in chains, that can be driven in the direction of synthesis when the phosphate bonds have undergone hydrolysis.

[2] Malt made from barley is used as a source of β-amylase to break down starch into the disaccharide maltose, which can be used by yeast to produce beer.

Ruminants such as cows are able to hydrolyze cellulose into cellobiose and then glucose because of symbiotic bacteria that produce cellulases.

The first hydrolysis step is given generically as Thus the aqua cations behave as acids in terms of Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory.

The dissociation constant, pKa, for this reaction is more or less linearly related to the charge-to-size ratio of the metal ion.

Hydrolysis tends to proceed as pH rises leading, in many cases, to the precipitation of a hydroxide such as Al(OH)3 or AlO(OH).

Acetals, imines, and enamines can be converted back into ketones by treatment with excess water under acid-catalyzed conditions: RO·OR−H3O−O; NR·H3O−O; RNR−H3O−O.

The reaction is also used to dispose of human and other animal remains as an alternative to traditional burial or cremation.