Learning
[2] Some learning is immediate, induced by a single event (e.g. being burned by a hot stove), but much skill and knowledge accumulate from repeated experiences.
For Vygotsky, however, play is the first form of learning language and communication, and the stage where a child begins to understand rules and symbols.
[17] Habituation has been shown in essentially every species of animal, as well as the sensitive plant Mimosa pudica[18] and the large protozoan Stentor coeruleus.
[21] An everyday example of this mechanism is the repeated tonic stimulation of peripheral nerves that occurs if a person rubs their arm continuously.
For example, a dog might learn to sit as the trainer scratches his ears, which ultimately is removing his itches (undesirable aspect).
Watson's behaviorism (and philosophy of science) stood in direct contrast to Freud and other accounts based largely on introspection.
Watson's most famous, and controversial, experiment was "Little Albert", where he demonstrated how psychologists can account for the learning of emotion through classical conditioning principles.
In humans, this form of learning seems to not need reinforcement to occur, but instead, requires a social model such as a parent, sibling, friend, or teacher with surroundings.
In filial imprinting, young animals, particularly birds, form an association with another individual or in some cases, an object, that they respond to as they would to a parent.
In 1935, the Austrian Zoologist Konrad Lorenz discovered that certain birds follow and form a bond if the object makes sounds.
Play involves a significant cost to animals, such as increased vulnerability to predators and the risk of injury and possibly infection.
Collaborative practices in the Mazahua people have shown that participation in everyday interaction and later learning activities contributed to enculturation rooted in nonverbal social experience.
For example, learning by coming together with people with similar interests and exchanging viewpoints, in clubs or in (international) youth organizations, and workshops.
It may occur through the experience of day-to-day situations (for example, one would learn to look ahead while walking because of the possible dangers inherent in not paying attention to where one is going).
They may be given time to assist international youth workshops and training courses, on the condition they prepare, contribute, share, and can prove this offered valuable new insight, helped to acquire new skills, a place to get experience in organizing, teaching, etc.
[60] Mozelius et al.[61] points out that intrinsic integration of learning content seems to be a crucial design factor, and that games that include modules for further self-studies tend to present good results.
The built-in encyclopedias in the Civilization games are presented as an example – by using these modules gamers can dig deeper for knowledge about historical events in the gameplay.
In incidental teaching learning is not planned by the instructor or the student, it occurs as a byproduct of another activity — an experience, observation, self-reflection, interaction, unique event (e.g. in response to incidents/accidents), or common routine task.
Research indicates that learning transfer is infrequent; most common when "... cued, primed, and guided..."[68] and has sought to clarify what it is, and how it might be promoted through instruction.
For example, if a room is too crowded, stress levels rise, student attention is reduced, and furniture arrangement is restricted.
If furniture is incorrectly arranged, sightlines to the instructor or instructional material are limited and the ability to suit the learning or lesson style is restricted.
[78][79][need quotation to verify] Certain techniques can increase long-term retention:[80] The underlying molecular basis of learning appears to be dynamic changes in gene expression occurring in brain neurons that are introduced by epigenetic mechanisms.
Epigenetic regulation of gene expression involves, most notably, chemical modification of DNA or DNA-associated histone proteins.
Essentially, the cost of obtaining certain knowledge versus the benefit of already having it determines whether an animal evolved to learn in a given situation, or whether it innately knew the information.
Monica Gagliano, an Australian professor of evolutionary ecology, makes an argument for associative learning in the garden pea, Pisum sativum.
Circadian rhythms in plants are modulated by endogenous bioactive substances that encourage leaf-opening and leaf-closing and are the basis of nyctinastic behaviors.
[98] Gagliano and colleagues constructed a classical conditioning test in which pea seedlings were divided into two experimental categories and placed in Y-shaped tubes.
The majority of plants in both experimental conditions grew in a direction consistent with the predicted location of light based on the position of the fan the previous day.
Mechanosensory proteins in cell lipid bilayers, known as MS ion channels, are activated once they are physically deformed in response to pressure or tension.
Most of the Machine Learning models are based on probabilistic theories where each input (e.g. an image ) is associated with a probability to become the desired output.
