Microglia, which are notably smaller than macroglia, can also extend their end-processes to contact areas of capillaries that are devoid of astrocyte endfeet, and thereby contribute to the formation of the glia limitans.

[note 1] Podocytes and pericytes share many physiological properties due to their large surface areas and intricate network of primary and secondary processes that wrap around their associated capillaries.

[17] This analogy between them is further supported by their shared vulnerability to pathological conditions such as Alzheimer's disease and minimal change nephropathy, both of which are characterized by reduction and damage of dendritic spines and foot processes respectively.

[26] This represents a marked departure from the typical pattern, wherein mitochondria generally tend to become smaller as their distance from the cell body increases, particularly within the fine branches and branchlets.

[27] In cases of traumatic brain injury and subsequent blood-brain barrier disruption, there is even further augmentation in mitochondrial number and density within astrocytic endfeet in order to facilitate vascular remodeling as an adaptive response.

[30] Dynamic changes in glomerular capillary pressure exert both tensile and stretching forces on podocyte foot processes, and can lead to mechanical strain on their cytoskeleton.

Concurrently, fluid flow shear stress is generated by the movement of glomerular ultrafiltrate, exerting a tangential force on the surface of these foot processes.

The negatively charged glycocalyx coating the foot processes facing the urinary space further enhances this barrier, creating an electrostatic repulsion that impedes the filtration of albumin.

[37] Astrocytic endfeet are rich in: The vascularization of bone is a metabolically demanding process, requiring substantial energy to support the proliferation and migration of endothelial cells.

These endfeet directly abut and communicate with TCVs, establishing a close physical association that enables the transfer of mitochondria, and thereby provide the endothelial cells with the energy necessary for vascularization.

[41] While chemical signalling pathways have long been recognized as key mediators of intercellular communication, recent studies have highlighted the significance of direct physical interactions in facilitating coordinated cellular responses.

[15] During the process of angiogenesis, newly formed microvessels typically consist of rapidly dividing endothelial cells and an immature basement membrane.

The presence of pericytes surrounding blood vessels is often associated with the inhibition of endothelial cell proliferation and the stabilization of newly formed microvessels.

[42] In diabetic retinopathy (DR), accumulation of toxic substances such as advanced glycation end-products (AGEs) leads to pericyte loss, weakening of capillary walls, and microaneurysms, all are hallmarks of DR. Abnormal changes in pericyte mechanical stiffness can impair their ability to maintain the arrest of capillary endothelial cell growth, which may be involved in angiogenesis, neovascularization, and proliferative DR.[43] Traditionally, CD8+ T-cells, responsible for combating intracellular pathogens, are required to undergo a multi-step migration process to reach infected organs.

[44] Microglia, while primarily known for their immunological functions, exhibit remarkable plasticity, enabling them to perform a diverse range of roles within the central nervous system.

Instead, they become broadly adherent to it, resulting in the near-complete obliteration of the subpodocyte space, the region beneath the podocyte cell body and major processes.

Even in cases of extensive FPE, recovery from effacement is possible if the disease resolves or with therapeutic intervention, and podocytes can restore their foot processes to their normal interdigitating state.

[46] Staphylococcus epidermidis, a common bacterium found as a normal commensal on human skin, is a significant cause of hospital-acquired infections that are associated with the use of implanted medical devices like heart valves and catheters.

[note 3] Neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder (NMOSD) is an autoimmune inflammatory disease characterized by the presence of serum antibodies directed against the water channel protein aquaporin-4 (AQP-4).

[40] Recent studies have revealed a correlation between multiple neurological disorders, and the loss of AQP4 polarity (i.e. when AQP4 are widely distributed throughout the astrocyte, instead of its typical localization at the endfeet).

As a result, intraoperative optical coherence tomography (iOCT)-guided ERM removal is an alternative approach that may minimize the risk of recurrence without the need for routine ILM peeling.