Mars

During the Noachian period (4.5 to 3.5 billion years ago), Mars's surface was marked by meteor impacts, valley formation, erosion, and the possible presence of water oceans.

Scientists have theorized that during the Solar System's formation, Mars was created as the result of a random process of run-away accretion of material from the protoplanetary disk that orbited the Sun.

Water flows in the grabens called the Cerberus Fossae occurred less than 20 million years ago, indicating equally recent volcanic intrusions.

[63] The Phoenix lander returned data showing Martian soil to be slightly alkaline and containing elements such as magnesium, sodium, potassium and chlorine.

[64] Experiments performed by the lander showed that the Martian soil has a basic pH of 7.7, and contains 0.6% perchlorate by weight,[65][66] concentrations that are toxic to humans.

[87] For mapping purposes, the United States Geological Survey divides the surface of Mars into thirty cartographic quadrangles, each named for a classical albedo feature it contains.

Its local relief, from the foot of the cliffs which form its northwest margin to its peak, is over 21 km (13 mi),[92] a little over twice the height of Mauna Kea as measured from its base on the ocean floor.

[94] The dichotomy of Martian topography is striking: northern plains flattened by lava flows contrast with the southern highlands, pitted and cratered by ancient impacts.

[110][111] Mars lost its magnetosphere 4 billion years ago,[112] possibly because of numerous asteroid strikes,[113] so the solar wind interacts directly with the Martian ionosphere, lowering the atmospheric density by stripping away atoms from the outer layer.

[126]Compared to Earth, its higher concentration of atmospheric CO2 and lower surface pressure may be why sound is attenuated more on Mars, where natural sources are rare apart from the wind.

[134] In September 2017, NASA reported radiation levels on the surface of the planet Mars were temporarily doubled, and were associated with an aurora 25 times brighter than any observed earlier, due to a massive, and unexpected, solar storm in the middle of the month.

These are thought to be a record of erosion caused by the catastrophic release of water from subsurface aquifers, though some of these structures have been hypothesized to result from the action of glaciers or lava.

Subsurface water flow and groundwater sapping may play important subsidiary roles in some networks, but precipitation was probably the root cause of the incision in almost all cases.

[156][157] No partially degraded gullies have formed by weathering and no superimposed impact craters have been observed, indicating that these are young features, possibly still active.

[173] These observations supported earlier hypotheses, based on timing of formation and their rate of growth, that these dark streaks resulted from water flowing just below the surface.

Other scientists caution that these results have not been confirmed, and point out that Martian climate models have not yet shown that the planet was warm enough in the past to support bodies of liquid water.

[182][183] During observations from 2018 through 2021, the ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter spotted indications of water, probably subsurface ice, in the Valles Marineris canyon system.

[197] As Mars approaches opposition, it begins a period of retrograde motion, which means it will appear to move backwards in a looping curve with respect to the background stars.

[208] The existence of Mars as a wandering object in the night sky was also recorded by the ancient Egyptian astronomers and, by 1534 BCE, they were familiar with the retrograde motion of the planet.

[218][219][220] During the seventeenth century A.D., Tycho Brahe measured the diurnal parallax of Mars that Johannes Kepler used to make a preliminary calculation of the relative distance to the planet.

Moreover, Kepler showed that Mars sped up as it approached the Sun and slowed down as it moved farther away, in a manner that later physicists would explain as a consequence of the conservation of angular momentum.

[253] However, in 1894 W. W. Campbell at Lick Observatory observed the planet and found that "if water vapor or oxygen occur in the atmosphere of Mars it is in quantities too small to be detected by spectroscopes then available".

Mars is nearly, or perhaps totally, geologically dead; the end of volcanic activity has apparently stopped the recycling of chemicals and minerals between the surface and interior of the planet.

The Viking probes of the mid-1970s carried experiments designed to detect microorganisms in Martian soil at their respective landing sites and had positive results, including a temporary increase in CO2 production on exposure to water and nutrients.

UV and X-ray radiation would turn chlorate and perchlorate ions into other, highly reactive oxychlorines, indicating that any organic molecules would have to be buried under the surface to survive.

[259] Small quantities of methane and formaldehyde detected by Mars orbiters are both claimed to be possible evidence for life, as these chemical compounds would quickly break down in the Martian atmosphere.

[264][265][266] The Cheyava Falls rock discovered on Mars in June 2024 has been designated by NASA as a "potential biosignature" and was core sampled by the Perseverance rover for possible return to Earth and further examination.

[276][277] It persisted into modern times, as exemplified by Gustav Holst's orchestral suite The Planets, whose famous first movement labels Mars "the bringer of war".

Schiaparelli's "canali" observations combined with Percival Lowell's books on the subject put forward the standard notion of a planet that was a drying, cooling, dying world with ancient civilizations constructing irrigation works.

Reminiscent of the canali observations, these speculations are based on small scale features perceived in the spacecraft images, such as "pyramids" and the "Face on Mars".

Mars depicted to scale alongside the planetary-mass objects of the Inner Solar System . From left: Mercury , Venus , Earth , the Moon , Mars and Ceres .)
Internal structure of Mars [ 43 ] [ 44 ]
Mapped gravity field of Mars
Curiosity 's view of Martian soil and boulders after crossing the "Dingo Gap" sand dune
Animation showing major features of Mars
A MOLA -based topographic map showing highlands (light colors) dominating the Southern Hemisphere of Mars, lowlands (dark colors) the northern. Volcanic plateaus delimit regions of the northern plains, whereas the highlands are punctuated by several large impact basins.
Picture of the tallest volcano on Mars, Olympus Mons . It is approximately 550 km (340 mi) across.
Valles Marineris , taken by the Viking 1 probe
Image of Mars
A broad view of Mars's atmosphere by Hope orbiter
Mars without (on left) and with a global dust storm in July 2001 (on right), including different visible water ice cloud covers, as seen by the Hubble Space Telescope
Rendering of the change of CO 2 ice (not water ice) coverage on the north (left) and south (right) poles of Mars between northern and southern summer.
Mars contains water, though mostly as dust covered polar layers of ice, as mapped in this image.
As top surface layer water appears readily visible at some places on Mars, as in this polar crater called Korolev .
Mars circling the Sun further and slower than Earth
Orbit of Mars and other Inner Solar System planets
Mars seen through a 16-inch amateur telescope, at 2020 opposition
An animation to explain the (apparent) retrograde motion of Mars, using actual 2020 planet positions
Galileo Galilei was the first to see Mars via telescope.
A 1962 map of Mars published by the U.S. Aeronautical Chart and Information Center , showing canals snaking through the Martian landscape. At the time, the existence of canals was still highly controversial as no close-up pictures of Mars had been taken (until Mariner 4 's flyby in 1965).
Map of Mars
Interactive image map of the global topography of Mars , overlaid with the position of Martian rovers and landers . Coloring of the base map indicates relative elevations of Martian surface.
Clickable image: Clicking on the labels will open a new article.
( Active Inactive Planned)
Curiosity rover's robotic arm showing drill in place, February 2013
A NASA ISRU system concept for autonomous robotic excavation and processing of Mars soil to extract water for use in exploration missions.
The War of the Worlds by H. G. Wells , 1897, depicts an invasion of Earth by fictional Martians.
The Sun, the planets, their moons, and several trans-Neptunian objects The Sun Mercury Venus The Moon Earth Mars Phobos and Deimos Ceres The main asteroid belt Jupiter Moons of Jupiter Rings of Jupiter Saturn Moons of Saturn Rings of Saturn Uranus Moons of Uranus Rings of Uranus Neptune Moons of Neptune Rings of Neptune Pluto Moons of Pluto Haumea Moons of Haumea Makemake S/2015 (136472) 1 The Kuiper Belt Eris Dysnomia The Scattered Disc The Hills Cloud The Oort Cloud